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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 19 records
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Tailoring Pore Architecture and Heteroatom Functionality of Polymeric Waste-Derived Nanoporous Carbon for CO 2 Capture Applications

This study proposes upcycling polymeric waste, i.e., waste floral foam, into high-performance nanoporous carbon that efficiently captures CO 2 . This paper presents strategies for improving the properties of nanoporous carbon, which aid in a superior CO 2 capture performance. Initially, pristine nanoporous carbon was produced from waste floral foam using various KOH impregnation ratios. The nanoporous carbon with a 1:2 (waste floral foam:KOH) ratio exhibiting optimal CO 2 capture capability was further advanced through single and dual atom doping. The doping of N and codoping of N,S atoms into the nanoporous carbon altered its textural and surface chemical properties, making them efficient for CO 2 capture. Comparative CO 2 capture studies of pristine nanoporous carbon (NC-x), N-doped nanoporous carbon (N-NC2), and N,S-codoped nanoporous carbon (N,S-NC2) demonstrate the superiority of N-doping. N-doped nanoporous carbon exhibited the largest ultramicroporosity (0.3100 cm3/g, 63.43%) and highest heteroatom content (34.94 atomic %), contributing to its enhanced CO 2 capture capability (4.54 mmol/g). Finally, implementing the “waste-to-depollution” approach, this research lays the groundwork for producing low-cost, environmentally friendly nanoporous carbon with remarkable CO 2 capture attributes.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Challenges in Product Selectivity for Electrocatalytic Reduction of Amine-Captured CO 2 : Implications for Reactive Carbon Capture

CO 2 is a potential feedstock for carbon-based fuels or materials, but is only available in dilute streams. Integrated processes for CO 2 capture and conversion directly valorize the CO 2 captured by sorbent materials, skipping the energetically expensive sorbent regeneration step. Amines are the most heavily studied liquid-phase sorbent materials for CO 2 capture from dilute streams. Amines react with CO 2 in a 2:1 ratio to form the corresponding ammonium carbamate. Ammonium carbamate [NH 4 ][H 2 NCO 2 ] was tested as the substrate using the highly selective and robust CO 2 -to-formate reduction electrocatalyst [( tBu POCOP)Ir(H)(NCCH 3 ) 2 ], where ( tBu POCOP) is the tridentate pincer ligand 2,6-bis(di tert -butyl-phosphonito). When ammonium carbamate was used as the substrate instead of CO 2 , only hydrogen was produced. An equivalent electrolysis with ammonium hexafluorophosphate with CO 2 also resulted in primarily hydrogen. Methyl carbamate and urea were also tested as substrates as proxies for carbamate that do not contain an equivalent of ammonium, and there was also negligible reduction to carbon-based products. These results indicate that the loss of selectivity observed for aminecaptured CO 2 , or ammonium carbamate, is likely due to the generation of the acidic ammonium equivalent as well as the greater challenge of reducing carbamate compared to CO 2 . This study illustrates that catalysts with high selectivity for concentrated CO 2 can favor hydrogen evolution and loss of carbon-based products when amine-captured CO 2 is used instead.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

High-current-density electrosynthesis of formate from captured CO 2 solution by MOF-derived bismuth nanosheets

Greenhouse gas emissions present a significant challenge to humanity, and utilizing renewable electricity to convert emitted CO 2 into value-added products offers a promising solution; however, traditional CO 2 capture and regeneration processes remain energy-intensive, restricting the overall system efficiency and decarbonization efficacy. In this study, an advanced direct reduction of captured CO 2 with large current densities for formate electrosynthesis was demonstrated without the need for CO 2 regeneration or compression. The bismuth nanosheet (DRM-BiNS) was synthesized by direct reduction of a Bi-based MOF, representing a new class of catalytic materials with a large surface area and interconnected pores, suitable for the direct reduction of captured CO 2 . By seamlessly combining experimentation and simulation, insights into the structure-parameter-performance relation were acquired in a flow cell setting, including critical membrane-electrode distance, cell orientation, and pumping flow rate. Important flow-cell components, such as catholyte volume, electrode substrate, membrane choice, and ionomer type, were also carefully examined to enhance the cell performance. In sharp contrast to prior studies limited to current densities below 20 mA/cm 2 in bicarbonate-based captured CO 2 solutions, this work demonstrates a remarkable current density of 300 mA/cm 2 with an FE to formate comparable to the case with gas-fed CO 2 reduction. Moreover, the process sustained an FE above 50% at a high current density of 500 mA/cm 2 . The DRM-BiNS catalyst exhibited outstanding selectivity, activity, and stability, significantly outperforming oxide-derived bismuth nanosheets (OD-BiNS) in captured CO 2 reduction. Furthermore, these findings offer critical insights into the development of sustainable and scalable CO 2 utilization technologies.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2024

Proton-Responsive Ligands Promote CO 2 Capture and Accelerate Catalytic CO 2 /HCO 2 – Interconversion

The synthesis and investigation of [Rh(DHMPE) 2 ][BF 4 ] (1) are reported. 1 features proton-responsive 1,2-bis[(dihydroxymethyl)phosphino]ethane (DHMPE) ligands, which readily capture CO 2 from atmospheric sources upon deprotonation. The protonation state of the DHMPE ligand was observed to have a significant impact on the catalytic reactivity of 1 with CO 2 . Deprotonation and CO 2 binding to 1 result in a ∼10-fold rate enhancement in catalytic degenerate CO 2 reduction with formate, monitored by 12 C/ 13 C isotope exchange between H 12 CO 2 – and 13 CO 2 . Studies performed using a similar complex lacking the hydroxyl ligand functionality ([Rh(DEPE) 2 ][BF 4 ] where DEPE = 1,2-bis(diethylphosphino)ethane) do not show the same rate enhancements when base is added. Based upon the cation-dependent activity of the catalyst, Eyring analysis, and cation sequestration experiments, CO 2 binding to 1 is proposed to facilitate preorganization of formate/CO 2 in the transition state via ligand-based encapsulation of Na + or K + cations to lower the activation energy and increase the observed catalytic rate. Incorporation of proton-responsive DHMPE ligands provides a unique approach to accelerate the kinetics of catalytic CO 2 reduction to formate.

Anions↗
DOE OSTI2025

Beta-Amino Carboxylate (BAC) non-aqueous physical solvents for enhanced CO2 separations in pre-combustion carbon capture, industrial CO 2 capture, and biogas upgrading processes

Novel beta-amino carboxylate (BAC) solvents have been synthesized and tested to efficiently capture carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from process gas streams with CO 2 partial pressure intermediate between pre-combustion and post-combustion capture. The BAC solvents have molecular structures characterized by alkyl-substituted amides or esters containing a secondary amine functional group on the second carbon from the carbonyl carbon (referred to as the beta “β” carbon). The ester or amide functional group combined with optimal steric crowding around the amine nitrogen by proximate alkyl groups are tailored to modify the strength of CO 2 binding in the solvent. The solvents possess high CO 2 solubilities and high gas selectivity including good CO 2 /H 2 O selectivity and can be utilized for CO 2 absorption over a range of partial pressures. Due to low volatility, many of the solvents can be operated at or above ambient temperature which eliminates solvent chilling and allows regeneration using low grade waste heat. These novel solvents offer an opportunity for efficient carbon capture for a range of applications including biogas upgrading, hydrogen production, and pre-combustion carbon capture.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Self-Assembled Oligomers Facilitate Amino Acid-Driven CO 2 Capture at the Air–Aqueous Interface

Direct air capture of CO 2 using amino acid absorbents, such as glycine or sarcosine, is constrained by the relatively slow mass transfer of CO 2 through the air–aqueous interface. Our recent study showed a marked improvement in CO 2 capture by introducing CO 2 -permeable oligo-dimethylsiloxane (ODMS-MIM + ) oligomers with cationic (imidazolium, MIM + ) headgroups. Here, in this work, we have employed all-atom molecular dynamics simulations in combination with subensemble analysis using network theory to provide a detailed molecular picture of the behavior of CO 2 and the glycinate anions (Gly – ) at the ODMS-MIM + decorated air–aqueous interfaces. We show that the cationic head groups of the surfactants enhance the concentration and lifetime of Gly – in the interfacial region, while ODMS tails promote the physisorption of CO 2 in the interfacial region. Together, these two factors increase the effective region of contact and the probability of interactions between CO 2 and Gly – compared to that of the pure air–aqueous interface. The fundamental insights gained in this work establish essential foundations for developing hybrid systems with oligomer-decorated interfaces to maximize the overall CO 2 capture rates.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Integrated Approach to CO 2 Capture and Conversion to Cyclic Carbonates under Solvent- and Additive-Free Conditions Utilizing the CO 2 Capture Solvent EEMPA

An integrated CO 2 capture and conversion to materials (IC 3 M) implementation utilizing a CO 2 capture solvent is an efficient approach to reduce the amount of CO 2 in the atmosphere while producing value-added chemicals. In this work, we demonstrate that the advanced water-lean CO 2 capture solvent, N-(2-Ethoxyethyl)-3-morpholinopropan-1-amine (EEMPA), can catalyze the cycloaddition reaction between CO 2 and propylene oxide to produce the value-added chemical propylene carbonate in an IC 3 M fashion. When excess propylene oxide is used relative to EEMPA, yields as high as 75% with 85% selectivity toward propylene carbonate can be achieved under solvent-free conditions without the need of additives/cocatalysts. The reaction temperature (120 °C) is comparable to that used in the thermal regeneration of the capture solvent under industrial conditions. Formation of an undesired amino alcohol side product was observed, but it may be reversible or avoidable with continued research despite the unsuccessful initial attempts. Finally, we show that this can be applied to other epoxides for the production of various cyclic carbonates.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Integrated CO 2 Capture and Conversion by a Robust Cu(I)-Based Metal–Organic Framework

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have shown promise in both capturing CO 2 under flue gas conditions and converting it into valuable chemicals. However, the development of a single MOF capable of capturing and selectively converting CO 2 has remained elusive due to lack of harmonious combination of selectivity, water stability, and reactivity. For example, Cu(I)-based MOFs are particularly effective for CO 2 conversion, but they do not typically exhibit selective CO 2 adsorption and often suffer from instability in the presence of air and moisture. Developing a Cu(I) MOF that is stable under flue gas conditions while also capturing CO 2 from this mixture would likely afford a material capable of selectively capturing and converting CO 2 in an integrated pathway, which would represent a significant advancement in this field. In this study, we introduce NU-2100, an ultramicroporous Cu(I) MOF, which exhibits both selectivity for CO 2 adsorption and great stability even in the presence of moisture and air. Comprehensive evaluations involving exposure to air, oxygen, water, and varying temperatures reveal that NU-2100 demonstrates superior stability compared to other known Cu(I) MOFs. Utilizing adsorption isotherms and thermogravimetric analysis coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (TGA-GCMS), we establish the high selectivity of NU-2100 for CO 2 over common flue gas components, including water, nitrogen, and oxygen. Additionally, under mild reaction conditions (50 °C and H 2 :CO 2 = 3:1), NU-2100 exhibits CO 2 capture and catalytic conversion to formic acid with 100% selectivity. Furthermore, this study marks an important step towards the design of next-generation MOFs capable of integrated carbon capture and utilization (iCCU) under industrial conditions.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2026

Technoeconomic analysis and life cycle assessment of purification processes for captured CO 2 streams

Captured carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) streams contain impurities that must be removed to meet specifications for safe transport, storage, and utilization. Among these impurities, oxygen poses challenges due to its high reactivity and potential to cause corrosion, motivating stringent purity limits below 10 ppmv. Building on recent experimental demonstrations of catalytic oxygen removal using hydrogen (H 2 ), carbon monoxide (CO), methanol (CH 3 OH), and methane (CH 4 ) as reducing agents, this study presents a technoeconomic (TEA) and life cycle assessment (LCA) of these four catalytic purification pathways. Process flowsheets were developed and simulated in Aspen Plus for CO 2 streams representative of both low-temperature and high-temperature capture processes, with integrated heat recovery and energy optimization. Results showed that total purification costs were dominated by feedstock procurement and electricity consumption. Among the studied reducing agents, the CH 4 -assisted route achieved the lowest purification cost and highest CO 2 recovery. Sensitivity analyses showed that the H 2 route became competitive at H 2 prices below $\$$0.56/kg to $\$$0.84/kg, depending on the CO 2 feed temperature conditions. In conclusion, environmental impacts were primarily driven by indirect CO 2 emissions from raw material production and utility consumption.

CO2 pipeline specifications↗
DOE OSTI2025

Comparative techno-economic analysis of synthetic renewable natural gas production via reactive CO 2 capture and conversion

Reactive CO 2 capture and conversion (RCC) is an emerging carbon management strategy that integrates CO 2 capture and conversion and avoids intermediate CO 2 purification. In this study, we design an RCC process to capture atmospheric CO 2 and react it with renewable hydrogen to produce synthetic renewable natural gas (SRNG), which serves as a carbon-neutral energy source and a chemical form of long-duration renewable energy storage. We assess the technological potential of RCC through process modeling, techno-economic, carbon footprint, and sensitivity analyses. Our findings demonstrate that RCC offers energy savings and comparable cost to separated capture and conversion processes. The cost is dominated by renewable hydrogen and material replacement cost. SRNG produced via RCC is competitive with existing low-carbon natural gas technologies and presents a promising low-cost option for long-duration energy storage. This work highlights the potential for deploying RCC technologies within a circular carbon economy and the scientific and technical challenges that must be overcome for material and technology developers.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Electrochemical reduction of ammonia-captured CO 2 to CO over a nickel single-atom catalyst

Carbon reactive capture and conversion offers a sustainable route to valuable chemicals and fuels while aiding Green House Gas (GHG) reduction. Direct electrochemical conversion of capture solutions like bicarbonate avoids the energy demands of conventional CO 2 regeneration. Ammonium bicarbonate (NH 4 HCO 3 ) is particularly attractive due to its low decomposition temperature and ability to supply in situ CO 2 from dilute sources without requiring purified CO 2 . Meanwhile, single-atom catalysts (SACs) with nitrogen-coordinated metal sites further enhance CO 2 reduction efficiency using Earth-abundant materials. In this study, we demonstrate a nickel single-atom catalyst (Ni-SAC)-based electrolyzer that utilizes NH 4 HCO 3 as the CO 2 source, achieving significantly improved CO production performance compared to the conventional silver cathodes used in the CO 2 reduction reaction (CO 2 RR) to produce CO. The Ni-SAC cathode exhibited a Faradaic efficiency of 60.1% for CO production at −200 mA cm −2 , while the silver cathode achieved a Faradaic efficiency of only 2%, likely due to ammonium-induced poisoning. Furthermore, the integration of a customized microporous layer onto the electrode significantly increased the Faradaic efficiency from 64% to 83% at −100 mA cm −2 , emphasizing the crucial role of electrode structure optimization in enhancing CO selectivity. These findings demonstrate a sustainable and economically viable strategy for green CO production directly from CO 2 capture solutions.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
DOE OSTI2026

A Six-Membered Concerted Mechanism for CO 2 Capture by Amines Studied under Charged Microdroplet Reaction Conditions

Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) capture and storage represents an important technological challenge. A mechanistic understanding of interactions involved in the capture process is necessary not only for technological development but also for efficient conversion of captured CO 2 into value-added materials. Herein, we present a novel contained secondary electrospray ionization platform for studying the interactions of gaseous amines and CO 2 gas under microdroplet reaction conditions, which enables mass spectrometry (MS) characterization of CO 2 capture products and intermediates in real time. We detected [2 M + CO 2 + H] + species, which corresponds to a six-membered intermediate. DFT calculations confirmed the high stability of the protonated six-membered ring intermediate. This finding provides a plausible concerted mechanism in the microdroplet environment that excludes the involvement of thermodynamically disfavored ionic species. The carbamic acid counterpart of the final product/salt was readily characterized by tandem MS. The carbamic acid/amine salt was also isolated and characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. By virtue of the fact that headspace vapors of amines are sampled, we were able to establish a high-throughput platform that enabled the CO 2 capture capacity of five different amines to be studied in under 2 min. The same device also enabled the absolute quantification of capture capacity.

Amines↗
DOE OSTI2025

Simulated Moving Bed Process for CO 2 Capture from Humid Postcombustion Flue Gases Using MUF-16

Simulated moving bed (SMB) designs are increasingly being adapted for the separation of multicomponent gaseous mixtures. In this work, we develop a modified SMB process for capturing CO 2 from humid postcombustion flue gas using MUF-16 (MUF = Massey University Framework). MUF-16 shows excellent selectivity for CO 2 over N 2 , moderate heats of adsorption for CO 2 and H 2 O, and no competitive sorption of CO 2 over water at relative humidities relevant to postcombustion capture. We utilize these characteristics to propose a continuous process that uses N 2 from the feed as the desorbent for the water, eliminating the need for a separate desiccant bed and allowing for localized heating during desorption for H 2 O-saturated MOF beds. Single-component isotherms, single-column breakthrough experiments, and SO 2 stability tests suggest the excellent suitability of MUF-16 to this separation via the proposed SMB design.

CO2 capture from humid flue gas↗
DOE OSTI2024

Evaluation of Aliphatic Alcohols for CO 2 Capture Using the Characteristic Carbonate Frequency

Control over CO 2 capture and utilization are important scientific and technological challenges. Although a variety of amine absorbents are used for capture, releasing the captured CO 2 is often difficult and limits their recyclability. Therefore, it is crucial to control the strength of the CO 2 bond with the absorbent. Furthermore, it is desirable to use a method that can conveniently report the strength of this bond. This motivates exploring adducts of CO 2 with alcohols in the presence of a base, using vibrational spectroscopy to report on the bond strength. Although reactions of alcohols with CO 2 to form alkyl carbonates are known, a systematic study of these adducts has not been conducted. Here we show formation of alkyl carbonates by a series of alcohols spanning the pK a range 9.5 to 16.8. We show experimental and computational results for the frequency of the characteristic asymmetric stretch of the carbonate and demonstrate that it correlates inversely with the pK a of the alcohol. Based on computations of the bond lengths and previous work, we propose that this frequency also correlates inversely with the adduct strength. As a result, this work extends the scope of CO 2 capture reagents and inspires further research in tuning alcohols as reversible absorbents.

Alcohols↗
DOE OSTI2026

Mechanistic insights into CO 2 capture and electrochemical conversion in nonaqueous Na–CO 2 batteries

Developing efficient energy storage systems that capture and convert CO 2 is critical for mitigating carbon emissions. Here, we report a Na–CO 2 battery with ruthenium dioxide (RuO 2 ) cathode catalysts and propane-1,3-diamine (PDA) as an electrolyte additive to enhance CO 2 capture and conversion efficiency. The integration of CO 2 adsorption and electrochemical reduction facilitates activation of the inert CO 2 molecule and circumvents gas–solid–liquid ternary-phase reactions at the interface. We employed density functional theory (DFT) calculations to systematically unravel the reaction mechanisms and energetics governing CO 2 reduction, both with and without PDA. Our results reveal an energetically favorable pathway toward the formation of Na 2 CO 3 and C as final discharge products, rather than sodium oxalate (Na 2 C 2 O 4 ). The CO 2 –amine adduct facilitates charge transfer from PDA to CO 2 , which results in activation of CO 2 . The kinetics of CO 2 conversion and regeneration of PDA were found to be significantly enhanced on the RuO 2 surface compared to the bulk electrolyte. More importantly, pre-activation of CO 2 via the amine–CO 2 adduct lowers the total overpotential to 2.44 V, compared to 3.13 V without PDA. This study provides fundamental insights into CO 2 electroreduction in Na–CO 2 batteries and underscores the promise of electrolyte engineering for sustainable CO 2 utilization and high-performance energy storage.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Reactive CO 2 capture and mineralization of magnesium hydroxide to produce hydromagnesite with inherent solvent regeneration

Valorization of multiple low value streams including CO 2 emissions and magnesium-hydroxide bearing mine tailings to produce magnesium carbonate through reactive CO 2 capture and mineralization provides a less explored opportunity to manage several gigatons of CO 2 emissions. To resolve the feasibility of converting magnesium hydroxide to magnesium carbonate through reactive CO 2 capture and mineralization, CO 2 capture solvents such as sodium glycinate are harnessed to capture CO 2 and react directly with Mg(OH) 2 to produce hydromagnesite (Mg 5 [(CO 3 )4(OH) 2 ]·4H 2 O). This approach eliminates the energy-intensive step of producing high purity CO 2 associated with regenerating the solvent, and redissolving CO 2 to produce magnesium carbonate. Interestingly, while temperatures below 50 °C facilitate CO 2 capture, the mineralization kinetics are slow. However, at higher temperatures, accelerated carbon mineralization is favored by the faster kinetics of Mg(OH) 2 dissolution and precipitation of magnesium carbonate. Reacting Mg(OH) 2 at 90 °C with 15 wt% solids in the presence of 2.5 M sodium glycinate after 3 hours under well-stirred conditions results in an extent of carbon mineralization of 75.5%. The theoretical maximum extent of carbon mineralization when hydromagnesite is formed is 80%. Pre-loading CO 2 on the solvent is also an effective approach to ensure that sufficient CO2 is available for reactive CO 2 capture and mineralization, particularly when dilute CO 2 and N 2 mixtures are used. Higher extents of carbon mineralization are associated with an increase in the particle size and a reduction in the cumulative pore volume. These insights unlock the feasibility of harnessing reactive CO 2 capture and mineralization as a pathway to convert magnesium-hydroxide bearing resources into industrially relevant magnesium carbonate products.

Reactive CO2↗
DOE OSTI2024

Engineering Design of a Polaris Membrane CO 2 Capture System at a Cement Plant

Sargent & Lundy (S&L) and Membrane Technology and Research, Inc. (MTR) in cooperation with CEMEX, completed an initial engineering design study to evaluate the retrofit of MTR’s membrane-based post-combustion carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) capture technology to the CEMEX Balcones cement plant (Balcones) Kiln 2. The CO 2 capture plant is designed to treat the entire flue gas flow from Kiln 2; it is estimated that this system will capture 2,039 tonnes/day per day (TPD) of CO 2 , approximately 75% of current CO 2 emissions from the kiln. The captured CO 2 is compressed to 2,213 psia (152.58 bara) before flowing to the capture plant boundary tie-point. It was assumed for this study that the CO 2 would be pumped off-site and transferred by pipeline to either a CO 2 storage complex for geological sequestration or elsewhere for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR).

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Electrochemical CO 2 Capture by a Quinone-Based Covalent Organic Framework

Electrochemical CO 2 capture is an emerging technology that promises to be more energy-efficient than traditional thermal or pressure-swing processes. Herein, the first evidence of electrochemical capture of CO 2 using a covalent organic framework (COF) is presented. We hypothesized that the assembly of anthraquinone units into a well-defined porous framework electrode would lead to enhanced electrochemical CO 2 capture compared to previous approaches that grafted anthraquinones on carbon supports and suffered from low CO 2 capacities and stabilities. To test this, an anthraquinone-based COF is employed, and it is found that the quinones are electrochemically accessible for reversible CO 2 capture in an ionic liquid electrolyte. The system achieves a high electrochemical CO 2 uptake capacity >2.6 mmol g –1 COF, reaching half of the theoretical CO 2 capacity of the material and surpassing the capacities of anthraquinone-functionalized carbons. The stability and CO 2 uptake rate issues encountered with the ionic liquid system are also addressed by using aqueous electrolytes where we attained stable carbon capture for 500 cycles with a 99.6% Coulombic efficiency and an electrical energy consumption of 31 kJ mol CO 2 –1 . The use of covalent organic framework electrodes can become a general strategy for understanding and enhancing the electrochemical CO 2 capture.

carbon capture and storage↗