The role of carbon and oxygen in cosmic gases - Some applications to the chemistry and mineralogy of enstatite chondrites
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Larimer, J. W.↗
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Solar wind gases, cosmic-ray spallation products and the irradiation history of Apollo 11 samples
Apollo 11 lunar soil irradiation history from solar wind rare gas abundances and cosmic ray spallation products
Lugmair, G. W.↗
SUPPRESSION OF DIELECTRONIC RECOMBINATION DUE TO FINITE DENSITY EFFECTS
We have developed a general model for determining density-dependent effective dielectronic recombination (DR) rate coefficients in order to explore finite-density effects on the ionization balance of plasmas. Our model consists of multiplying by a suppression factor those highly-accurate total zero-density DR rate coefficients which have been produced from state-of-the-art theoretical calculations and which have been benchmarked by experiment. The suppression factor is based upon earlier detailed collision-radiative calculations which were made for a wide range of ions at various densities and temperatures, but used a simplified treatment of DR. A general suppression formula is then developed as a function of isoelectronic sequence, charge, density, and temperature. These density-dependent effective DR rate coefficients are then used in the plasma simulation code Cloudy to compute ionization balance curves for both collisionally ionized and photoionized plasmas at very low (n{sub e} = 1 cm{sup -3}) and finite (n{sub e} = 10{sup 10} cm{sup -3}) densities. We find that the denser case is significantly more ionized due to suppression of DR, warranting further studies of density effects on DR by detailed collisional-radiative calculations which utilize state-of-the-art partial DR rate coefficients. This is expected to impact the predictions of the ionization balance in denser cosmic gases such as those found in nova and supernova shells, accretion disks, and the broad emission line regions in active galactic nuclei.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
Trapped solar and cosmogenic noble gas abundances in Apollo 15 and 16 deep drill samples
Abundances and isotopic compositions of all the stable noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe) were measured at different depths of the Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 deep drill cores, and in several surface fines and breccias. All samples analyzed from both drill cores were found to contain large concentrations of solar wind implanted gases. This means that even the deepest layers of both cores have experienced a lunar surface history. The Apollo 15 core data are consistent with a combined accretion plus static time of a few hundred million years, and also indicate variable pre-accretion irradiation of core material. Depth profiles of cosmogenic gases in the Apollo 16 core show considerably larger concentrations of cosmic gases below 65 cm depth than above. This pattern may be interpreted either as an accretionary process, or by a more recent deposition of regolith to the upper 70 cm of the core.
Bogard, D. D.↗
Workshop on Extraterrestrial Materials from Cold and Hot Deserts
The workshop was held July 6-8, 1999 before the Meteoritical Society meeting in Johannesburg, South Africa. The venue was Kwa Maritane Resort in the Pilanesburg Game Reserve. Conveners were Ludolf Schultz (Chair, MPI fur Chemie), Ian Franchi (Open University), Arch Reid (University of Houston), and Mike Zolensky (NASA JSC). Extended abstracts will be published as an LPI Technical Report. In the first session, Marvin discussed three African iron meteorites: Cape of Good Hope, Gibeon, and Hoba. Grady presented a statistical analysis of meteorites from hot and cold deserts. Wasson discussed types of Antarctic iron meteorites. Several presentations characterized populations of meteorites from individual desert areas: Libyan Desert (Weber et al.), Nullarbor Region (Bevan et al.), and Mojave Desert (Kring et al. and Verish et al). Pairing among EET87503-group howardites was discussed by Buchanan et al. Based on 14C terrestrial ages of Allan Hills ordinary chondrites, Bland et al. suggested that ice flow may be the principal sink for Antarctic meteorites. The effects of preterrestrial and terrestrial alteration were considered in the second session. Nakamura et al. and Lipschutz discussed asteroidal metamorphism of carbonaceous chondrites. Zolensky presented evidence for preterrestrial halide and sulfide in meteorites. Crozaz and Wadhwa described terrestrial alteration of Dar al Gani 476. Welten and Nishiizumi discussed terrestrial weathering of chondrites from Frontier Mountain, Antarctica. Most of the third session dealt with terrestrial meteorite ages. Based on 14C-10Be ages, Jull et al. discussed the exponential decay in numbers of meteorites with increased age. Nishiizumi et al. concluded that some Allan Hills meteorites have much older terrestrial ages than any meteorites from Lewis Cliffs. Welten et al. discussed terrestrial ages determined by 41Ca/36CI of metal separates from hot desert meteorites. Based on a comparison with large IDPs, Flynn et al. suggested that polar micrometeorites, lost a water-soluble sulfate phase by terrestrial alteration. Nyquist suggested that Type I cosmic spheres from deep sea sediments and polar ice were derived from carbonaceous chondrite-like asteroidal sources. The final session considered noble gases, cosmic ray effects, and thermoluminescence. Calculations presented by Reedy indicate that cosmic ray-produced nuclides are more likely to be preserved in small objects than in larger objects. Murty and Mohapatra. reported that trapped gas in Dar al Gani 476 includes a Martian atmospheric component. Wieler et al. and Scherer et al. reported noble gas abundances in different types of desert meteorites. Patzer and Schultz discussed the influence of terrestrial weathering on cosmic ray exposure ages of enstatite chondrites. Franchi et al. suggested that it is difficult to discriminate whether differences in gas release profiles of lunar meteorites from hot deserts and returned lunar samples are the result of terrestrial weathering or shock metamorphism. Benoit and Sears surveyed natural and induced thermoluminescence of Antarctic ordinary chondrites. Merchel et al. analyzed Saharan meteorites with short or complex exposure histories.
Buchanan, Paul C.↗
Weakly ionized cosmic gas: Ionization and characterization
Since collective plasma behavior may determine important transport processes (e.g., plasma diffusion across a magnetic field) in certain cosmic environments, it is important to delineate the parameter space in which weakly ionized cosmic gases may be characterized as plasmas. In this short note, we do so. First, we use values for the ionization fraction given in the literature, wherein the ionization is generally assumed to be due primarily to ionization by cosmic rays. We also discuss an additional mechanism for ionization in such environments, namely, the photoelectric emission of electrons from cosmic dust grains in an interstellar Far Ultra Violet (FUV) radiation field. Simple estimates suggest that under certain conditions this mechanism may dominate cosmic ray ionization, and possibly also the photoionization of metal atoms by the interstellar FUV field, and thereby lead to an enhanced ionization level.
Rosenberg, M.↗
THE CARBON CONTENT OF INTERGALACTIC GAS AT z = 4.25 AND ITS EVOLUTION TOWARD z = 2.4
This paper presents ionization-corrected measurements of the carbon abundance in intergalactic gas at 4.0 < z < 4.5, using spectra of three bright quasars obtained with the Magellan Inamori Kycocera Echelle spectrograph on Magellan. By measuring the C IV strength in a sample of 131 discrete H I-selected quasar absorbers with {rho}/{rho}-bar {>=} 1.6, we derive a median carbon abundance of [C/H]=-3.55, with lognormal scatter of approximately {sigma} {approx} 0.8 dex. This median value is a factor of two to three lower than similar measurements made at z {approx} 2.4 using C IV and O VI. The strength of evolution is modestly dependent on the choice of UV background spectrum used to make ionization corrections, although our detection of an abundance evolution is generally robust with respect to this model uncertainty. We present a framework for analyzing the effects of spatial fluctuations in the UV ionizing background at frequencies relevant for C IV production. We also explore the effects of reduced flux between 3 and 4 Rydbergs (as from He II Lyman series absorption) on our abundance estimates. At He II line absorption levels similar to published estimates, the effects are very small, although a larger optical depth could reduce the strength of the abundance evolution. Our results imply that {approx}50% of the heavy elements seen in the intergalactic medium at z {approx} 2.4 were deposited in the 1.3 Gyr between z {approx} 4.3 and z {approx} 2.4. The total implied mass flux of carbon into the Ly{alpha} forest would constitute {approx}30% of the IMF-weighted carbon yield from known star-forming populations over this period.
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ESTIMATE OF THE TOTAL MECHANICAL FEEDBACK ENERGY FROM GALAXY CLUSTER-CENTERED BLACK HOLES: IMPLICATIONS FOR BLACK HOLE EVOLUTION, CLUSTER GAS FRACTION, AND ENTROPY
The total feedback energy injected into hot gas in galaxy clusters by central black holes can be estimated by comparing the potential energy of observed cluster gas profiles with the potential energy of non-radiating, feedback-free hot gas atmospheres resulting from gravitational collapse in clusters of the same total mass. Feedback energy from cluster-centered black holes expands the cluster gas, lowering the gas-to-dark-matter mass ratio below the cosmic value. Feedback energy is unnecessarily delivered by radio-emitting jets to distant gas far beyond the cooling radius where the cooling time equals the cluster lifetime. For clusters of mass (4-11) x 10{sup 14} M{sub sun}, estimates of the total feedback energy, (1-3) x 10{sup 63} erg, far exceed feedback energies estimated from observations of X-ray cavities and shocks in the cluster gas, energies gained from supernovae, and energies lost from cluster gas by radiation. The time-averaged mean feedback luminosity is comparable to those of powerful quasars, implying that some significant fraction of this energy may arise from the spin of the black hole. The universal entropy profile in feedback-free gaseous atmospheres in Navarro-Frenk-White cluster halos can be recovered by multiplying the observed gas entropy profile of any relaxed cluster by a factor involving the gas fraction profile. While the feedback energy and associated mass outflow in the clusters we consider far exceed that necessary to stop cooling inflow, the time-averaged mass outflow at the cooling radius almost exactly balances the mass that cools within this radius, an essential condition to shut down cluster cooling flows.
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INTERGALACTIC GAS IN GROUPS OF GALAXIES: IMPLICATIONS FOR DWARF SPHEROIDAL FORMATION AND THE MISSING BARYONS PROBLEM
Radio galaxies with bent jets are predominantly located in groups and clusters of galaxies. We use bent-double radio sources, under the assumption that their jets are bent by ram pressure, to probe intragroup medium (IGM) gas densities in galaxy groups. This method provides a direct measurement of the intergalactic gas density and allows us to probe intergalactic gas at large radii and in systems whose IGM is too cool to be detected by the current generation of X-ray telescopes. We find gas with densities of 10{sup -3} to 10{sup -4} cm{sup -3} at group radii from 15 to 700 kpc. A rough estimate of the total baryonic mass in intergalactic gas is consistent with the missing baryons being located in the IGM of galaxy groups. The neutral gas will be easily stripped from dwarf galaxies with total masses of 10{sup 6}-10{sup 7} M{sub sun} in the groups studied here. Indications are that intragroup gas densities in less-massive systems like the Local Group should be high enough to strip gas from dwarfs like Leo T and, in combination with tides, produce dwarf spheroidals.
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FERMI-LAT OBSERVATIONS OF THE DIFFUSE {gamma}-RAY EMISSION: IMPLICATIONS FOR COSMIC RAYS AND THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM
The {gamma}-ray sky >100 MeV is dominated by the diffuse emissions from interactions of cosmic rays with the interstellar gas and radiation fields of the Milky Way. Observations of these diffuse emissions provide a tool to study cosmic-ray origin and propagation, and the interstellar medium. We present measurements from the first 21 months of the Fermi Large Area Telescope (Fermi-LAT) mission and compare with models of the diffuse {gamma}-ray emission generated using the GALPROP code. The models are fitted to cosmic-ray data and incorporate astrophysical input for the distribution of cosmic-ray sources, interstellar gas, and radiation fields. To assess uncertainties associated with the astrophysical input, a grid of models is created by varying within observational limits the distribution of cosmic-ray sources, the size of the cosmic-ray confinement volume (halo), and the distribution of interstellar gas. An all-sky maximum-likelihood fit is used to determine the X{sub CO} factor, the ratio between integrated CO-line intensity and H{sub 2} column density, the fluxes and spectra of the {gamma}-ray point sources from the first Fermi-LAT catalog, and the intensity and spectrum of the isotropic background including residual cosmic rays that were misclassified as {gamma}-rays, all of which have some dependency on the assumed diffuse emission model. The models are compared on the basis of their maximum-likelihood ratios as well as spectra, longitude, and latitude profiles. We also provide residual maps for the data following subtraction of the diffuse emission models. The models are consistent with the data at high and intermediate latitudes but underpredict the data in the inner Galaxy for energies above a few GeV. Possible explanations for this discrepancy are discussed, including the contribution by undetected point-source populations and spectral variations of cosmic rays throughout the Galaxy. In the outer Galaxy, we find that the data prefer models with a flatter distribution of cosmic-ray sources, a larger cosmic-ray halo, or greater gas density than is usually assumed. Our results in the outer Galaxy are consistent with other Fermi-LAT studies of this region that used different analysis methods than employed in this paper.
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ON THE HOT GAS CONTENT OF THE MILKY WAY HALO
The Milky Way appears to be missing baryons, as the observed mass in stars and gas is well below the cosmic mean. One possibility is that a substantial fraction of the Galaxy's baryons are embedded within an extended, million-degree hot halo, an idea supported indirectly by observations of warm gas clouds in the halo and gas-free dwarf spheroidal satellites. X-ray observations have established that hot gas does exist in our Galaxy beyond the local hot bubble; however, it may be distributed in a hot disk configuration. Moreover, recent investigations into the X-ray constraints have suggested that any Galactic corona must be insignificant. Here we re-examine the observational data, particularly in the X-ray and radio bands, in order to determine whether it is possible for a substantial fraction of the Galaxy's baryons to exist in {approx}10{sup 6} K gas. In agreement with past studies, we find that a baryonically closed halo is clearly ruled out if one assumes that the hot corona is distributed with a cuspy Navarro-Frenk-White profile. However, if the hot corona of the galaxy is in an extended, low-density distribution with a large central core, as expected for an adiabatic gas in hydrostatic equilibrium, then it may contain up to 10{sup 11} M {sub Sun} of material, possibly accounting for all of the missing Galactic baryons. We briefly discuss some potential avenues for discriminating between a massive, extended hot halo and a local hot disk.
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INTERACTING COSMIC RAYS WITH MOLECULAR CLOUDS: A BREMSSTRAHLUNG ORIGIN OF DIFFUSE HIGH-ENERGY EMISSION FROM THE INNER 2 Degree-Sign Multiplication-Sign 1 Degree-Sign OF THE GALACTIC CENTER
The high-energy activity in the inner few degrees of the Galactic center is traced by diffuse radio, X-ray, and {gamma}-ray emission. The physical relationship between different components of diffuse gas emitting at multiple wavelengths is a focus of this work. We first present radio continuum observations using the Green Bank Telescope and model the nonthermal spectrum in terms of a broken power-law distribution of {approx}GeV electrons emitting synchrotron radiation. We show that the emission detected by Fermi is primarily due to nonthermal bremsstrahlung produced by the population of synchrotron emitting electrons in the GeV energy range interacting with neutral gas. The extrapolation of the electron population measured from radio data to low and high energies can also explain the origin of Fe I 6.4 keV line and diffuse TeV emission, as observed with Suzaku, XMM-Newton, Chandra, and the H.E.S.S. observatories. The inferred physical quantities from modeling multiwavelength emission in the context of bremsstrahlung emission from the inner {approx}300 Multiplication-Sign 120 pc of the Galactic center are constrained to have the cosmic-ray ionization rate {approx}1-10 Multiplication-Sign 10{sup -15} s{sup -1}, molecular gas heating rate elevating the gas temperature to 75-200 K, fractional ionization of molecular gas 10{sup -6}-10{sup -5}, large-scale magnetic field 10-20 {mu}G, the density of diffuse and dense molecular gas {approx}100 and {approx}10{sup 3} cm{sup -3} over 300 pc and 50 pc path lengths, and the variability of Fe I K{alpha} 6.4 keV line emission on yearly timescales. Important implications of our study are that GeV electrons emitting in radio can explain the GeV {gamma}-rays detected by Fermi and that the cosmic-ray irradiation model, like the model of the X-ray irradiation triggered by past activity of Sgr A*, can also explain the origin of the variable 6.4 keV emission from Galactic center molecular clouds.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
EXPLICIT-IMPLICIT SCHEME FOR RELATIVISTIC RADIATION HYDRODYNAMICS
We propose an explicit-implicit scheme for numerically solving special relativistic radiation hydrodynamic equations, which ensures a conservation of total energy and momentum (matter and radiation). In our scheme, zeroth and first moment equations of the radiation transfer equation are numerically solved without employing a flux-limited diffusion approximation. For an hyperbolic term, of which the timescale is the light crossing time when the flow velocity is comparable to the speed of light, is explicitly solved using an approximate Riemann solver. Source terms describing an exchange of energy and momentum between the matter and the radiation via the gas-radiation interaction are implicitly integrated using an iteration method. The implicit scheme allows us to relax the Courant-Friedrichs-Lewy condition in optically thick media, where heating/cooling and scattering timescales could be much shorter than the dynamical timescale. We show that our numerical code can pass test problems of one- and two-dimensional radiation energy transport, and one-dimensional radiation hydrodynamics. Our newly developed scheme could be useful for a number of relativistic astrophysical problems. We also discuss how to extend our explicit-implicit scheme to the relativistic radiation magnetohydrodynamics.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
The jet and arc molecular clouds toward Westerlund 2, RCW 49, and HESS J1023–575; {sup 12}CO and {sup 13}CO (J = 2-1 and J = 1-0) observations with NANTEN2 and Mopra telescope
We have made new CO observations of two molecular clouds, which we call 'jet' and 'arc' clouds, toward the stellar cluster Westerlund 2 and the TeV γ-ray source HESS J1023–575. The jet cloud shows a linear structure from the position of Westerlund 2 on the east. In addition, we have found a new counter jet cloud on the west. The arc cloud shows a crescent shape in the west of HESS J1023–575. A sign of star formation is found at the edge of the jet cloud and gives a constraint on the age of the jet cloud to be ∼Myr. An analysis with the multi CO transitions gives temperature as high as 20 K in a few places of the jet cloud, suggesting that some additional heating may be operating locally. The new TeV γ-ray images by H.E.S.S. correspond to the jet and arc clouds spatially better than the giant molecular clouds associated with Westerlund 2. We suggest that the jet and arc clouds are not physically linked with Westerlund 2 but are located at a greater distance around 7.5 kpc. A microquasar with long-term activity may be able to offer a possible engine to form the jet and arc clouds and to produce the TeV γ-rays, although none of the known microquasars have a Myr age or steady TeV γ-rays. Alternatively, an anisotropic supernova explosion which occurred ∼Myr ago may be able to form the jet and arc clouds, whereas the TeV γ-ray emission requires a microquasar formed after the explosion.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
Linear growth of the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability with an adiabatic cosmic-ray gas
We investigate effects of cosmic rays on the linear growth of the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability. Cosmic rays are treated as an adiabatic gas and allowed to diffuse along magnetic field lines. We calculated the dispersion relation of the instability for various sets of two free parameters, the ratio of the cosmic-ray pressure to the thermal gas pressure, and the diffusion coefficient. Including cosmic-ray effects, a shear layer is more destabilized and the growth rates can be enhanced in comparison with the ideal magnetohydrodynamical case. Whether the growth rate is effectively enhanced or not depends on the diffusion coefficient of cosmic rays. We obtain the criterion for effective enhancement by comparing the growing timescale of the instability with the diffusion timescale of cosmic rays. These results can be applied to various astrophysical phenomena where a velocity shear is present, such as outflows from star-forming galaxies, active galactic nucleus jet, channel flows resulting from the nonlinear development of the magnetorotational instability, and galactic disks.
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Formation of ketene (H{sub 2}CCO) in interstellar analogous methane (CH{sub 4})-carbon monoxide (CO) ices: A combined FTIR and reflectron time-of-flight mass spectroscopic study
The formation of ketene (H{sub 2}CCO) in methane-carbon monoxide (CH{sub 4}-CO) ices was investigated upon its exposure to ionizing radiation in the form of energetic electrons at 5.5 K. The radiation-induced nonthermal equilibrium processing of these ices was monitored online and in situ via infrared spectroscopy complimented with post-irradiation temperature programmed desorption studies exploiting highly sensitive reflectron time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ReTOF) coupled with single photon fragment-free photo ionization (PI) at 10.49 eV. The detection of ketene in irradiated (isotopically labeled) methane-carbon monoxide ices was confirmed via the ν{sub 2} infrared absorption band and substantiated during the warm-up phase based on sublimation profiles obtained from the ReTOF-PI spectra of the corresponding isotopic masses. The experiments conducted with the mixed isotopic ices of {sup 12}CD{sub 4}-{sup 13}CO provide clear evidence of the formation of at least two ketene isotopomers (D{sub 2} {sup 12}C{sup 13}CO and D{sub 2} {sup 13}C{sup 13}CO), allowing for the derivation of two competing formation pathways. We have also proposed underlying reaction mechanisms to the formation of ketene based on kinetic fitting of the temporal evolution of the ketene isotopomers.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
Exclusion of cosmic rays in protoplanetary disks. II. Chemical gradients and observational signatures
The chemical properties of protoplanetary disks are especially sensitive to their ionization environment. Sources of molecular gas ionization include cosmic rays (CRs), stellar X-rays, and short-lived radionuclides, each of which varies with location in the disk. This behavior leads to a significant amount of chemical structure, especially in molecular ion abundances, which is imprinted in their submillimeter rotational line emission. Using an observationally motivated disk model, we make predictions for the dependence of chemical abundances on the assumed properties of the ionizing field. We calculate the emergent line intensity for abundant molecular ions and simulate sensitive observations with the Atacama Large Millimeter/Sub-millimeter Array (ALMA) for a disk at D = 100 pc. The models readily distinguish between high ionization rates (ζ ≳ 10{sup –17} s{sup –1} per H{sub 2}) and below, but it becomes difficult to distinguish between low ionization models when ζ ≲ 10{sup –19} s{sup –1}. We find that H{sub 2}D{sup +} emission is not detectable for sub-interstellar CR rates with ALMA (6h integration), and that N{sub 2}D{sup +} emission may be a more sensitive tracer of midplane ionization. HCO{sup +} traces X-rays and high CR rates (ζ{sub CR} ≳ 10{sup –17} s{sup –1}), and provides a handle on the warm molecular ionization properties where CO is present in the gas. Furthermore, species like HCO{sup +}, which emits from a wide radial region and samples a large gradient in temperature, can exhibit ring-like emission as a consequence of low-lying rotational level de-excitation near the star. This finding highlights a scenario where rings are not necessarily structural or chemical in nature, but simply a result of the underlying line excitation properties.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
Photon-dominated region modeling of the [C I], [C II], and CO Line Emission From A Boundary In The Taurus molecular cloud
We present [C I] and [C II] observations of a linear edge region in the Taurus molecular cloud, and model this region as a cylindrically symmetric photon-dominated region (PDR) exposed to a low-intensity UV radiation field. The sharp, long profile of the linear edge makes it an ideal case to test PDR models and determine cloud parameters. We compare observations of the [C I], {sup 3} P {sub 1} → {sup 3} P {sub 0} (492 GHz), [C I] {sup 3} P {sub 2} → {sup 3} P {sub 1} (809 GHz), and [C II] {sup 2} P {sub 3/2} → {sup 2} P {sub 1/2} (1900 GHz) transitions, as well as the lowest rotational transitions of {sup 12}CO and {sup 13}CO, with line intensities produced by the RATRAN radiative transfer code from the results of the Meudon PDR code. We constrain the density structure of the cloud by fitting a cylindrical density function to visual extinction data. We study the effects of variation of the FUV field, {sup 12}C/{sup 13}C isotopic abundance ratio, sulfur depletion, cosmic ray ionization rate, and inclination of the filament relative to the sky-plane on the chemical network of the PDR model and resulting line emission. We also consider the role of suprathermal chemistry and density inhomogeneities. We find good agreement between the model and observations, and that the integrated line intensities can be explained by a PDR model with an external FUV field of 0.05 G {sub 0}, a low ratio of {sup 12}C to {sup 13}C ∼43, a highly depleted sulfur abundance (by a factor of at least 50), a cosmic ray ionization rate (3-6) × 10{sup –17} s{sup –1}, and without significant effects from inclination, clumping or suprathermal chemistry.
79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗