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Cryogenic Oxygen Storage Modules with Carbon Dioxide Sequestration for Environmental Control and Life Support Applications

NASA Kennedy Space Center engineers developed a Cryogenic Oxygen Storage Module (COSM) to store oxygen in solid-state form and deliver it as a gas to an end-use environmental control and/or life support system. Additionally, the COSM can scrub out nuisance or containment gases such as carbon dioxide and/or water vapor in conjunction with supplying oxygen, forming a synergistic system when used in a closed-loop application. Closed-loop life support systems require both oxygen supply and removal of toxic or nuisance gases such as CO2 from the breathing loop. In most deployed systems, these two requirements are accomplished independently. COSM combines these capabilities to work simultaneously which may allow for reduced system volume, mass, complexity and cost of a rebreathing device.

Jeffrey A Kohler↗

Using NASA Techniques to Atmospherically Correct AWiFS Data for Carbon Sequestration Studies

Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas emitted in a number of ways, including the burning of fossil fuels and the conversion of forest to agriculture. Research has begun to quantify the ability of vegetative land cover and oceans to absorb and store carbon dioxide. The USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture) Forest Service is currently evaluating a DSS (decision support system) developed by researchers at the NASA Ames Research Center called CASA-CQUEST (Carnegie-Ames-Stanford Approach-Carbon Query and Evaluation Support Tools). CASA-CQUEST is capable of estimating levels of carbon sequestration based on different land cover types and of predicting the effects of land use change on atmospheric carbon amounts to assist land use management decisions. The CASA-CQUEST DSS currently uses land cover data acquired from MODIS (the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer), and the CASA-CQUEST project team is involved in several projects that use moderate-resolution land cover data derived from Landsat surface reflectance. Landsat offers higher spatial resolution than MODIS, allowing for increased ability to detect land use changes and forest disturbance. However, because of the rate at which changes occur and the fact that disturbances can be hidden by regrowth, updated land cover classifications may be required before the launch of the Landsat Data Continuity Mission, and consistent classifications will be needed after that time. This candidate solution investigates the potential of using NASA atmospheric correction techniques to produce science-quality surface reflectance data from the Indian Remote Sensing Advanced Wide-Field Sensor on the RESOURCESAT-1 mission to produce land cover classification maps for the CASA-CQUEST DSS.

Holekamp, Kara L.↗

High-Efficiency Artificial Photosynthesis Using a Novel Alkaline Membrane Cell

A new cell designed to mimic the photosynthetic processes of plants to convert carbon dioxide into carbonaceous products and oxygen at high efficiency, has an improved configuration using a polymer membrane electrolyte and an alkaline medium. This increases efficiency of the artificial photosynthetic process, achieves high conversion rates, permits the use of inexpensive catalysts, and widens the range of products generated by this type of process. The alkaline membrane electrolyte allows for the continuous generation of sodium formate without the need for any additional separation system. The electrolyte type, pH, electrocatalyst type, and cell voltage were found to have a strong effect on the efficiency of conversion of carbon dioxide to formate. Indium electrodes were found to have higher conversion efficiency compared to lead. Bicarbonate electrolyte offers higher conversion efficiency and higher rates than water solutions saturated with carbon dioxide. pH values between 8 and 9 lead to the maximum values of efficiency. The operating cell voltage of 2.5 V, or higher, ensures conversion of the carbon dioxide to formate, although the hydrogen evolution reaction begins to compete strongly with the formate production reaction at higher cell voltages. Formate is produced at indium and lead electrodes at a conversion efficiency of 48 mg of CO2/kilojoule of energy input. This efficiency is about eight times that of natural photosynthesis in green plants. The electrochemical method of artificial photosynthesis is a promising approach for the conversion, separation and sequestration of carbon dioxide for confined environments as in space habitats, and also for carbon dioxide management in the terrestrial context. The heart of the reactor is a membrane cell fabricated from an alkaline polymer electrolyte membrane and catalyst- coated electrodes. This cell is assembled and held in compression in gold-plated hardware. The cathode side of the cell is supplied with carbon dioxide-saturated water or bicarbonate solution. The anode side of the cell is supplied with sodium hydroxide solution. The solutions are circulated past the electrodes in the electrochemical cell using pumps. A regulated power supply provides the electrical energy required for the reactions. Photovoltaic cells can be used to better mimic the photosynthetic reaction. The current flowing through the electrochemical cell, and the cell voltage, are monitored during experimentation. The products of the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide are allowed to accumulate in the cathode reservoir. Samples of the cathode solution are withdrawn for product analysis. Oxygen is generated on the anode side and is allowed to vent out of the reservoir.

Narayan, Sri↗

Monitoring CO2 sources and sinks from space : the Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO) Mission

NASA's Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO) will make the first space-based measurements of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) with the precision, resolution, and coverage needed to characterize the geographic distribution of CO2 sources and sinks and quantify their variability over the seasonal cycle. OCO is currently scheduled for launch in 2008. The observatory will carry a single instrument that incorporates three high-resolution grating spectrometers designed to measure the near-infrared absorption by CO2 and molecular oxygen (O2) in reflected sunlight. OCO will fly 12 minutes ahead of the EOS Aqua platform in the Earth Observing System (EOS) Afternoon Constellation (A-Train). The in-strument will collect 12 to 24 soundings per second as the Observatory moves along its orbit track on the day side of the Earth. A small sampling footprint (<3 km2 at nadir) was adopted to reduce biases in each sounding associated with clouds and aerosols and spatial variations in surface topography. A comprehensive ground-based validation program will be used to assess random errors and biases in the XCO2 product on regional to continental scales. Measurements collected by OCO will be assimilated with other environmental measurements to retrieve surface sources and sinks of CO2. This information could play an important role in monitoring the integrity of large scale CO2 sequestration projects.

carbon dioxide sources and sinks↗

Differential Muon Tomography to Continuously Monitor Changes in the Composition of Subsurface Fluids

Muon tomography has been used to seek hidden chambers in Egyptian pyramids and image subsurface features in volcanoes. It seemed likely that it could be used to image injected, supercritical carbon dioxide as it is emplaced in porous geological structures being used for carbon sequestration, and also to check on subsequent leakage. It should work equally well in any other application where there are two fluids of different densities, such as water and oil, or carbon dioxide and heavy oil in oil reservoirs. Continuous monitoring of movement of oil and/or flood fluid during enhanced oil recovery activities for managing injection is important for economic reasons. Checking on leakage for geological carbon storage is essential both for safety and for economic purposes. Current technology (for example, repeat 3D seismic surveys) is expensive and episodic. Muons are generated by high- energy cosmic rays resulting from supernova explosions, and interact with gas molecules in the atmosphere. This innovation has produced a theoretical model of muon attenuation in the thickness of rock above and within a typical sandstone reservoir at a depth of between 1.00 and 1.25 km. Because this first simulation was focused on carbon sequestration, the innovators chose depths sufficient for the pressure there to ensure that the carbon dioxide would be supercritical. This innovation demonstrates for the first time the feasibility of using the natural cosmic-ray muon flux to generate continuous tomographic images of carbon dioxide in a storage site. The muon flux is attenuated to an extent dependent on, amongst other things, the density of the materials through which it passes. The density of supercritical carbon dioxide is only three quarters that of the brine in the reservoir that it displaces. The first realistic simulations indicate that changes as small as 0.4% in the storage site bulk density could be detected (equivalent to 7% of the porosity, in this specific case). The initial muon flux is effectively constant at the surface of the Earth. Sensitivity of the method would be decreased with increasing depth. However, sensitivity can be improved by emplacing a greater array of particle detectors at the base of the reservoir.

Coleman, Max↗

[Characterization of Black and Dichothrix Cyanobacteria Based on the 16S Ribosomal RNA Gene Sequence]

My project focuses on characterizing different cyanobacteria in thrombolitic mats found on the island of Highborn Cay, Bahamas. Thrombolites are interesting ecosystems because of the ability of bacteria in these mats to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and mineralize it as calcium carbonate. In the future they may be used as models to develop carbon sequestration technologies, which could be used as part of regenerative life systems in space. These thrombolitic communities are also significant because of their similarities to early communities of life on Earth. I targeted two cyanobacteria in my research, Dichothrix spp. and whatever black is, since they are believed to be important to carbon sequestration in these thrombolitic mats. The goal of my summer research project was to molecularly identify these two cyanobacteria. DNA was isolated from each organism through mat dissections and DNA extractions. I ran Polymerase Chain Reactions (PCR) to amplify the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene in each cyanobacteria. This specific gene is found in almost all bacteria and is highly conserved, meaning any changes in the sequence are most likely due to evolution. As a result, the 16S rRNA gene can be used for bacterial identification of different species based on the sequence of their 16S rRNA gene. Since the exact sequence of the Dichothrix gene was unknown, I designed different primers that flanked the gene based on the known sequences from other taxonomically similar cyanobacteria. Once the 16S rRNA gene was amplified, I cloned the gene into specialized Escherichia coli cells and sent the gene products for sequencing. Once the sequence is obtained, it will be added to a genetic database for future reference to and classification of other Dichothrix sp.

Ortega, Maya↗

Ocean Carbon and Biogeochemistry Scoping Workshop on Terrestrial and Coastal Carbon Fluxes in the Gulf of Mexico, St. Petersburg, FL

Despite their relatively small surface area, ocean margins may have a significant impact on global biogeochemical cycles and, potentially, the global air-sea fluxes of carbon dioxide. Margins are characterized by intense geochemical and biological processing of carbon and other elements and exchange large amounts of matter and energy with the open ocean. The area-specific rates of productivity, biogeochemical cycling, and organic/inorganic matter sequestration are high in coastal margins, with as much as half of the global integrated new production occurring over the continental shelves and slopes (Walsh, 1991; Doney and Hood, 2002; Jahnke, in press). However, the current lack of knowledge and understanding of biogeochemical processes occurring at the ocean margins has left them largely ignored in most of the previous global assessments of the oceanic carbon cycle (Doney and Hood, 2002). A major source of North American and global uncertainty is the Gulf of Mexico, a large semi-enclosed subtropical basin bordered by the United States, Mexico, and Cuba. Like many of the marginal oceans worldwide, the Gulf of Mexico remains largely unsampled and poorly characterized in terms of its air-sea exchange of carbon dioxide and other carbon fluxes. The goal of the workshop was to bring together researchers from multiple disciplines studying terrestrial, aquatic, and marine ecosystems to discuss the state of knowledge in carbon fluxes in the Gulf of Mexico, data gaps, and overarching questions in the Gulf of Mexico system. The discussions at the workshop were intended to stimulate integrated studies of marine and terrestrial biogeochemical cycles and associated ecosystems that will help to establish the role of the Gulf of Mexico in the carbon cycle and how it might evolve in the face of environmental change.

Air sea exchanges↗

Permanent Sequestration of Emitted Gases in the Form of Clathrate Hydrates

Underground sequestration has been proposed as a novel method of permanent disposal of harmful gases emitted into the atmosphere as a result of human activity. The method was conceived primarily for disposal of carbon dioxide (CO2, greenhouse gas causing global warming), but could also be applied to CO, H2S, NOx, and chorofluorocarbons (CFCs, which are super greenhouse gases). The method is based on the fact that clathrate hydrates (e.g., CO2 6H2O) form naturally from the substances in question (e.g., CO2) and liquid water in the pores of sub-permafrost rocks at stabilizing pressures and temperatures. The proposed method would be volumetrically efficient: In the case of CO2, each volume of hydrate can contain as much as 184 volumes of gas. Temperature and pressure conditions that favor the formation of stable clathrate hydrates exist in depleted oil reservoirs that lie under permafrost. For example, CO2-6H2O forms naturally at a temperature of 0 C and pressure of 1.22 MPa. Using this measurement, it has been calculated that the minimum thickness of continuous permafrost needed to stabilize CO2 clathrate hydrate is only about 100 m, and the base of the permafrost is known to be considerably deeper at certain locations (e.g., about 600 m at Prudhoe Bay in Alaska). In this disposal method, the permafrost layers over the reservoirs would act as impermeable lids that would prevent dissociation of the clathrates and diffusion of the evolved gases up through pores.

Duxbury, N.↗

Using Pyrolysis and its Bioproducts to Help Close the Loop in Sustainable Life Support Systems

The next step in human exploration of space is beyond low Earth orbit and possibly to sites such as the Moon and Mars. Resupply of critical life support components for missions such as these are difficult or impossible. Life support processes for closing the loop of water, oxygen and carbon have to be identified .. Currently, there are many technologies proposed for terrestrial missions for waste, water, air processing and the creation of consumables. There are a variety of different approaches, but few address all of these issues simultaneously. One candidate is pyrolysis; a method where waste streams can be heated in the absence of oxygen to undergo a thermochemical conversion producing a series of bioproducts. Bioproducts like biochar made from non-edible biomass and human solid waste can possibly provide valuable benefits such as waste reduction, regolith fertilization for increased food production, and become a consumable for water processing and air revitalization systems. Syngas containing hydrogen, carbon monoxide and c~bon dioxide, can be converted to methane and dimethyl ether to create propellants. Bio-oils can be utilized as a heating fuel or fed to bioreactors that utilize oil-eating microbes. Issues such as carbon sequestration and subsequent carbon balance of the closed system and identifying ideal process methods to achieve the highest quality products, whilst being energy friendly, will also be addressed.

McCoy, LaShelle E.↗

Multifunctional Surface Treatment for Self-Sterilization and CO2 Sequestration for Sustainable Space Exploration

A long-term human space presence is dependent on maintaining a safe living environment. Disinfecting surfaces is essential to protecting astronauts from potential pathogens, as well as structural components of the habitat from damaging biofilms. Developing a surface coating that utilizes readily available light has the potential to provide sterilization with additional functionality. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a commonly used photocatalyst owing to its efficiency, economic feasibility, and safety to humans. TiO2 photocatalyst modified with other metals such as copper or iron could allow for self-sterilization, photocatalytic memory, and photoreduction of carbon dioxide (CO2) to fuels on Mars. Sustainable design of the photocatalyst should account for the resources available, specifically within the Martian and Lunar regolith. This project reviews the current technologies to design a TiO2 photocatalyst which can be incorporated into a space habitat’s inner lining.

Human Space Exploration↗

NASA/GSFC Research Activities for the Global Ocean Carbon Cycle: A Prospectus for the 21st Century

There are increasing concerns that anthropogenic inputs of carbon dioxide into the Earth system have the potential for climate change. In response to these concerns, the GSFC Laboratory for Hydrospheric Processes has formed the Ocean Carbon Science Team (OCST) to contribute to greater understanding of the global ocean carbon cycle. The overall goals of the OCST are to: 1) detect changes in biological components of the ocean carbon cycle through remote sensing of biooptical properties, 2) refine understanding of ocean carbon uptake and sequestration through application of basic research results, new satellite algorithms, and improved model parameterizations, 3) develop and implement new sensors providing critical missing environmental information related to the oceanic carbon cycle and the flux of CO2 across the air-sea interface. The specific objectives of the OCST are to: 1) establish a 20-year time series of ocean color, 2) develop new remote sensing technologies, 3) validate ocean remote sensing observations, 4) conduct ocean carbon cycle scientific investigations directly related to remote sensing data, emphasizing physiological, empirical and coupled physical/biological models, satellite algorithm development and improvement, and analysis of satellite data sets. These research and mission objectives are intended to improve our understanding of global ocean carbon cycling and contribute to national goals by maximizing the use of remote sensing data.

Gregg, W. W.↗

Quantifying the Ocean’s Biological Pump and Its Carbon Cycle Impacts on Global Scales

The biological pump transports organic matter, created by phytoplankton productivity in the well-lit surface ocean, to the ocean’s dark interior, where it is consumed by animals and heterotrophic microbes and remineralized back to inorganic forms. This downward transport of organic matter sequesters carbon dioxide from exchange with the atmosphere on timescales of months to millennia, depending on where in the water column the respiration occurs. There are three primary export pathways that link the upper ocean to the interior: the gravitational, migrant, and mixing pumps. These pathways are regulated by vastly different mechanisms, making it challenging to quantify the impacts of the biological pump on the global carbon cycle. In this review, we assess progress toward creating a global accounting of carbon export and sequestration via the biological pump and suggest a potential path toward achieving this goal.

biological pump↗

Microbial Diversity Analysis of the Bacterial and Archaeal Population in Present Day Stromatolites

Stromatolites are layered sedimentary structures resulting from microbial mat communities that remove carbon dioxide from their environment and biomineralize it as calcium carbonate. Although prevalent in the fossil record, stromatolites are rare in the modem world and are only found in a few locations including Highbome Cay in the Bahamas. The stromatolites found at this shallow marine site are analogs to ancient microbial mat ecosystems abundant in the Precambrian period on ancient Earth. To understand how stromatolites form and develop, it is important to identify what microorganisms are present in these mats, and how these microbes contribute to geological structure. These results will provide insight into the molecular and geochemical processes of microbial communities that prevailed on ancient Earth. Since stromatolites are formed by lithifying microbial mats that are able to mineralize calcium carbonate, understanding the biological mechanisms involved may lead to the development of carbon sequestration technologies that will be applicable in human spaceflight, as well as improve our understanding of global climate and its sustainability. The objective of my project was to analyze the archaeal and bacterial dIversity in stromatolites from Highborn Cay in the Bahamas. The first step in studying the molecular processes that the microorganisms carry out is to ascertain the microbial complexity within the mats, which includes identifying and estimating the numbers of different microbes that comprise these mats.

Ortega, Maya C.↗