Summary and over-all results of the Echo project.
Echo project objectives and results
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Project Echo: Antenna Steering System
The Project Echo communications experiment employed large, steerable,transmitting and receiving antennas at the ground terminals. It was necessary that these highly directional antennas be continuously and accurately pointed at the passing satellite. This paper describes a new type of special purpose data converter for directing narrow-beam communication antennas on the basis of predicted information. The system is capable of converting digital input data into real-time analog voltage commands with a dynamic accuracy of +/- 0.05 degree, which meets the requirements of the present antennas.
Klahn, R.↗
Project Echo: System Calculations
The primary experimental objective of Project Echo was the transmission of radio communications between points on the earth by reflection from the balloon satellite. This paper describes system calculations made in preparation for the experiment and their adaptation to the problem of interpreting the results. The calculations include path loss computations, expected audio signal-to-noise ratios, and received signal strength based on orbital parameters.
Ruthroff, Clyde L.↗
Project Echo: FM Demodulators with Negative Feedback
The primary experimental objective of Project Echo was the transmission of radio communications between points on the earth by reflection from the balloon satellite. Owing to the large path losses from transmitter to receiver via the satellite, a wide-band frequency modulation technique was used in which bandwidth was traded for signal-to-noise ratio. This paper describes the FM receiving demodulators employed. Negative feedback applied to the local oscillator reduces the FM modulation index in the receiver IF amplifiers, resulting in threshold performance superior to that of conventional FM receivers.
Ruthroff, Clyde L.↗
Project Echo: 960-Megacycle, 10-Kilowatt Transmitter
A 10-kw transmitter operating at 960 to 961 Mc was used at the eastern terminus of the Project Echo communications experiment. This transmitter is located on Crawford's Hill near Holmdel, New Jersey. The 10-kw output feeds into a waveguide line leading to a 60-foot dish antenna. Exciter-driver units are available to drive the power amplifier with various modulations, such as wide-deviation FM, low-index phase modulation, single-sideband or double-sideband modulation with or without carrier, 960.05 or 961.05 Mc constant-frequency CW, and radar on-off pulses at 961.05 Mc. The main output amplifier consists primarily of a four-stage, externally-tuned-cavity, water-cooled klystron, operating at a beam voltage of 16 to 18 kv. The transmitter has been operated during many Moonbounce, tropospheric scatter, and Echo I tests with very satisfactory results. This paper describes its use before March 1, 1961.
Schafer, J. P.↗
Project Echo: Horn-Reflector Antenna for Space Communication
This paper describes the mechanical features of the horn- reflector antenna used for receiving signals reflected from the Project Echo balloon satellite, and presents in some detail the electrical characteristics (radiation patterns and gain) measured at a frequency of 2390 Mc. Theoretically derived characteristics which agree very well with the measurements are also presented; details of the calculations are given in the appendices.
Crawford, A. B.↗
Project Echo: 961-Mc Lower - Sideband Up - Converter for Satellite-Tracking Radar
A 961-Mc lower-sideband up-converter was specially designed to serve as preamplifier for the satellite-tracking radar used in Project Echo. The amplifier and its power supply are separately boxed and are installed directly behind the tracking antenna. The amplifier has been functioning most satisfactorily and has been used in routine manner to track the Echo satellite from horizon to horizon. This paper describes the design considerations, and details the special steps taken to ensure that the amplifier met the particular system needs of low noise, absolute stability, insensitivity to temperature fluctuations, and high input-power level before the onset of gain compression. The satisfactory operation of this amplifier confirms the great potentiality of parametric amplifiers as stable, low-noise, high-frequency receivers.
Uenohara, M.↗
Project Echo: Standby Receiver System
The Echo I satellite receiving system at the Bell Telephone Laboratories facilities at Holmdel, New Jersey, required a 2390-Mc standby receiver system to maintain operation during possible failures of the primary maser receiver. This paper describes the details of the two matched parametric amplifiers that were used to provide the standby receiver. The use of this system in the initial Moonbounce experiments and in Project Echo is described. The details of an emergency operation at the beginning of a balloon pass are also presented.
Kibler, L. U.↗
Project ECHO: Electronic Communications from Halo Orbit
The design of a communications relay to provide constant access between the Earth and the far side of the Moon is presented. Placement of the relay in a halo orbit about the L2 Earth-Moon Lagrange point allows the satellite to maintain constant simultaneous communication between Earth and scientific payloads on the far side of the Moon. The requirements of NASA's Discovery-class missions adopted and modified for this design are: total project cost should not exceed $150 million excluding launch costs, launch must be provided by Delta-class vehicle, and the satellite should maintain an operational lifetime of 10 to 15 years. The spacecraft will follow a transfer trajectory to the L2 point, after launch by a Delta II 7925 vehicle in 1999. Low-level thrust is used for injection into a stationkeeping-free halo orbit once the spacecraft reaches the L2 point. The shape of this halo orbit is highly elliptical with the maximum excursion from the L2 point being 35000 km. A spun section and despun section connected through a bearing and power transfer assembly (BAPTA) compose the structure of the spacecraft. Communications equipment is placed on the despun section to provide for a stationary dual parabolic offset-feed array antenna system. The dual system is necessary to provide communications coverage during portions of maximum excursion on the halo orbit. Transmissions to the NASA Deep Space Network 34 m antenna include six channels (color video, two voice, scientific data from lunar payloads, satellite housekeeping and telemetry and uplinked commands) using the S- and X-bands. Four radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG's) provide a total of 1360 W to power onboard systems and any two of the four Hughes 13 cm ion thrusters at once. Output of the ion thrusters is approximately 17.8 mN each with xenon as the propellant. Presence of torques generated by solar pressure on the antenna dish require the addition of a 'skirt' extending from the spun section of the satellite for balance. Total mass of the satellite is approximately 900 kg at a cost of $130 million FY99.
Borrelli, Jason↗
Significant electronic applications and experimental results from Project Echo
Prototype ground spheres, television and beacon telemetry system, and communication experiments for Echo II satellite
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM↗
Project Echo objectives and implementation.
Echo II program to launch passive communications satellite that will maintain spherical shape and surface smoothness after loss of inflatant pressure
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Participation of Bell Telephone Laboratories in Project Echo and Experimental Results
On August 12, 1960, Echo I, a 100-foot-diameter spherical balloon, was placed in orbit around the earth by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The objective was to demonstrate the feasibility of long-distance communication by microwave reflection from a satellite. A two-way coast-to-coast voice circuit was to be established between the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) facility in California and a station provided by Bell Telephone Laboratories (STL) in New Jersey. Similar tests were also planned with the Naval Research Laboratory and other stations. This paper describes the general organization and operation of the Holmdel, New Jersey, station, and discusses the results of the experiments performed between the balloon launching and March 1, 1961. Successful voice communication was achieved through a variety of modulation methods including frequency modulation with feedback, amplitude modulation, single-sideband modulation, and narrow-band phase modulation. Careful measurements were also made of the loss in the transmission path.
Jakes, William C., Jr.↗
Project Echo: Satellite-Tracking Radar
The radar employed at the Bell Telephone Laboratories' Holmdel, New Jersey site for tracking the Echo I satellite was originally designed for the sole purpose of antenna pointing. Recently, however, it has also been employed to measure earth-balloon-earth path loss at regular intervals of time in order to ascertain the balloon's condition. The performance of the system and some of the data obtained are discussed.
DeLange, O. E.↗
Project Echo: Receiving System
A tracking horn-reflector antenna, a maser preamplifier (and standby parametric preamplifier), and a special FM demodulator were combined to form a low-noise receiving system which made possible the establishment of a high-quality voice circuit via the Echo I passive satellite. This paper describes the 2390-Mc receiving system located at the Bell Telephone Laboratories facility in Holmdel, New Jersey.
Ohm, E. A.↗
Project Echo: Boresight Cameras for Recording Antenna Pointing Accuracy
Motion picture cameras equipped with telephoto lenses were installed on the transmitting and receiving antennas at Holmdel, New Jersey. When the Echo satellite was visible, a camera obtained a photographic record of the pointing accuracy of the antenna. These data were then used to correlate variations of signal strength with deviations in antenna pointing angle.
Warthman, K. L.↗
Spaceflight revolution: NASA Langley Research Center from Sputnik to Apollo
As part of the transition to the broad research scope of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) starting in the late 1950's, the Langley Research Center underwent many changes in program content, organization and management, and areas of personnel expertise. This book describes and evaluates the evolution and activities of the Langley Research Center during the seventeen-year period from 1958 to 1975. The book was based on the analysis of hundreds of written records, both published and unpublished, as well as numerous personal interviews with many of the key individuals involved in the transition of Langley. Some of the projects and research areas covered include Project Echo, magnetoplasmadynamics research, Scout Rocket Program, lunar-orbit rendezvous research, manned space laboratory development, and Apollo and the Lunar Orbiter Project.
Hansen, James R.↗
Participation of the holmdel station in the telstar project
The facility for satellite communication studies at Holmdel, New Jersey, was originally established to take part in Project Echo. This paper describes the modifications required to participate in the Telstar experiments and the results obtained during operations from July 10 to November 9, 1962. Reception of television from the satellite was successfully accomplished, studies were made of the signal levels, and the changes with time of the satellite spin rate and spin axis orientation were determined.
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Microwave Reflectivity of Deposited Aluminum Films for Passive Relay Communications
Reflectivity measurements from 400 Mc/sec to 10 kMc/sec on 2,200 A thick aluminum deposited on 1/2-mil-thick Mylar film show this material to be a very good reflector of radio waves. Measurements made under conditions of stress and temperature which would be encountered by a communications sphere, such as Project Echo (1960 Iota), showed very little deterioration of the high reflectivity. packaging effects also caused very little reflectivity change. Under conditions of severe temperature cycling, aluminum removal and decreased reflectivity occurred.
Cuddihy, William F.↗