High-contrast Imaging with Fizeau Interferometry: the Case of Altair*
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E. Spalding↗
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Thermal expansion of graphite epoxy
Two optical techniques to measure the thermal expansion of fiber-reinforced composites are discussed. These techniques are moire interferometry and Fizeau interferometry. The pertinent features of each setup are presented and the preparation of the composite specimens discussed. Thermal expansion measurements in the range 116 to 422 K for 0 deg, 90 deg, and quasi-isotropic graphite-epoxy composite laminates are presented.
Hyer, M. W.↗
One-dimensional stitching interferometry assisted by a triple-beam interferometer
In this work, we proposed for stitching interferometry to use a triple-beam interferometer to measure both the distance and the tilt for all sub-apertures before the stitching process. The relative piston between two neighboring sub-apertures is then calculated by using the data in the overlapping area. Comparisons are made between our method, and the classical least-squares principle stitching method. Our method can improve the accuracy and repeatability of the classical stitching method when a large number of sub-aperture topographies are taken into account. Our simulations and experiments on flat and spherical mirrors indicate that our proposed method can decrease the influence of the interferometer error from the stitched result. The comparison of stitching system with Fizeau interferometry data is about 2 nm root mean squares and the repeatability is within ± 2.5 nm peak to valley.
47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
Steps Toward a Large Space-Based UV/Optical Fizeau Interferometer: The GSFC Fizeau Interferometer Testbed (FIT)
Goddard Space Flight Center is pursuing the development of space-based, long-baseline (0.5km) UV-optical Fizeau imaging interferometers to enable the next major stride toward very high angular resolution astronomical observations. This effort includes the development and operation of the Fizeau Interferometry Testbed (FIT), in collaboration with the Naval Research Lab/NPOI, Univ. of MD, and Sigma Space Corporation. The FIT will be used to explore the principles of and requirements for the Stellar Imager (SI) mission concept (http://hires.gsfc.nasa.gov/~si) and other such Fizeau Interferometers/Sparse Aperture Telescope missions, leading in the end to the Planet Imager (PI), which is the ultimate goal of the current Origins Program. The primary goal of the FIT program is to demonstrate closed-loop control of mirrors (tip, tilt, piston, translation of array elements) and the overall system to keep the optical beams in phase and enable high quality imaging by a many-element (7-30) Fizeau Interferometric System. The FIT will also be used to assess various wave-front reconstruction and sensing and image reconstruction algorithms for utility and accuracy by application to real data generated by the Testbed. In this paper, we describe the design and goals of the system, provide a status report on its construction, and note our future plans.
Carpenter, K. G.↗
The effect of longer-range waviness on X-ray reflectivity measurements
A model for calculating the X-ray reflectivity (XRR) of surfaces to extract both roughness and waviness features is presented. Expressions of reflectivity intensity are derived as a function of root-mean-square (RMS) roughness σ, RMS waviness σ L , and the cut-off frequency between the features ω 0 . Experiments were conducted at the Advanced Light Source at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, beamline 8.3.2, on BK7 glass manufactured with a multi-step polishing process to validate the model, and were compared with atomic force microscopy (AFM), Fizeau interferometry and surface profilometry measurements. Here, the parameter results and their deviations for XRR measurements were σ = 2.9 ± 0.2 nm and σ L = 14.6 ± 0.5 nm with a wavelength cut-off of 1/(18 ± 2) µm –1 , while the results from the AFM, Fizeau and profilometry measurements were σ AFM = 3.4 ± 0.4 nm, σ L,Fizeau = 21.6 nm, σ prof = 4.0 ± 0.1 nm, and σ L,prof = 21.4 ± 0.1 nm with cut-offs for the profilometry and Fizeau measurements limited to frequencies of (1/16) µm –1 to (1/4) mm –1 .
42 ENGINEERING↗
Binary pseudo-random array standards for calibration of 3D optical surface profilers used for metrology with significantly curved x-ray optics
High-accuracy metrology is vitally important in manufacturing ultra-high-quality free-form mirrors designed to manipulate X-ray light with nanometer-scale wavelengths. The current capabilities and possibility for improvements in X-ray mirror manufacturing are limited by inherent imperfections of the integrated metrology tools. In the case of Fizeau interferometry, metrology tools are currently calibrated with super-polished flat test-standard/reference mirrors. This is acceptable for measuring slightly curved X-ray optics. However, for even moderately curved aspherical X-ray mirrors the flat-reference calibration is not sufficiently accurate and stitching Fizeau interferometer-based surface metrology is used to mitigate the problem. But still, the retrace and aberration errors, as well as the limited spatial resolution, described with the instrument transfer function (ITF), can be transferred into the optical surface topography of X-ray mirrors obtained in stitching metrology. For ITF calibration, we have developed an original technique, based on test standards structured as two-dimensional (2D) highly-randomized (HR) binary pseudo-random arrays (BPRAs). The technique employs the unique properties of the HR BPRA patterns in the spatial frequency domain., i.e. the inherent 2D power spectral density of the HR BPRA pattern has a deterministic white-noise-like character that allows direct determination of the ITF with uniform sensitivity over the entire spatial frequency range and field-of-view of an instrument. Here, we explore technological, metrological, and analytical aspects essential for calibration of the retrace and aberration errors of Fizeau interferometers using different types of tilted test samples, including a super-polished reference mirror for the re-trace calibration and the uniformly redundant array (URA) BPRA standards for the geometrical distortion (aberration) calibration. While the first method was previously demonstrated by researchers at DIAMOND Light Source, a method based on the URA BPRA is described and demonstrated here for the first time. We outline the design and fabrication process used in fabrication of URA BPRA test standards, and present the results of application of the URA BPRA standards demonstrating the high efficacy of our approach to geometrical distortion calibration of Fizeau interferometers. We also discuss the possible sources of unexpected peculiarities of the systematic errors, including an astigmatic character of the retrace error, observed with Fizeau interferometers at the Advanced Light Source X-Ray Optics Laboratory.
Munechika, Keiko↗
Fabrication and characterization of a full-size ultra-precise lamellar grating for the Cosmic beamline at ALS-U
We have developed a new process for the production of ultra-precise variable line spacing (VLS) lamellar diffraction gratings through nanofabrication. The process enables the fabrication of full-size X-ray gratings with sub-nanometre accuracy in groove depth, an optimal land-to-groove ratio, and uniform groove depth across the entire grating area. We also established a method for evaluating VLS groove density variation using stitched Fizeau interferometry. The measurements confirmed the exceptionally high accuracy of the VLS groove density in the fabricated gratings, which is well within the specification tolerances while the residual groove density errors are vanishingly small. The gold-coated grating demonstrated near-theoretical diffraction efficiency across the energy range of 100–1200 eV.
36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
Direct Writing of X-ray Gratings Using Zone-Plate-Array Lithography (ZPAL)
With the objective of providing the synchrotron and free-electron-laser communities with rapid turnaround and low prices for the highest quality and most advanced gratings and diffractive-focusing optics, LumArray has made specific improvements to its ZP-150 maskless photolithography system, which is based on Zone-Plate-Array Lithography (ZPAL), a technology unique to Lumarray. ZPAL’s advantages include an ability to correct in software for systematic patterning errors. Emphasis was placed on interferometric measurements of various contributors to patterning errors using Fizeau interferometry and a Mireau technique that was developed specifically for measuring errors within a micron-scale area. Average line-placement error was reduced below 20 nm using both pattern-file distortion and address-grid modification. The preferred implementation, address-grid modification, is hardware-based and requires no user intervention while also correcting more types of error. With continued iteration and refinement of the error measurements, we anticipate achieving global line-placement error below10nm. In order to investigate line-edge smoothness and high-frequency line-placement errors, a scheme for inspecting micron-sized areas was invented and implemented based on Mireau interferometry. This enabled the various contributions to be separately evaluated and measured. These included: exposure-dose variation, pattern-writing strategy and errors in the positioning of the microlenses. Deleterious crosstalk between microlenses was minimized via a pattern-dependent software modification. The impact of exposure threshold was revealed and adjustment made. The impact of address-grid fineness on line-edge roughness was likewise shown. Lastly, techniques were developed to measure and correct errors in the positioning of microlenses within the array. We expect final calibration of microlens positions to within 5nm.
42 ENGINEERING↗
Dimensional stability of fused silica and several ultralow expansion materials
Description of a program of measurements of the dimensional stability of fused silica and several ultralow thermal expansion materials. The two techniques used are: (1) Fizeau interferometry employed by NBS-Corning, and (2) Fabry-Perot interferometry employed by the Optical Science Center, University of Arizona. In the latter, a measurement accuracy of one part in a billion is sought.
Jacobs, S. F.↗
Microscale Investigation of Thermo-Fluid Transport in the Transition FIL, Region of an Evaporating Capillary Meniscus Using a Microgravity Environment
In order to enhance the fundamental understanding of thin film evaporation and thereby improve the critical design concept for two-phase heat transfer devices, microscale heat and mass transport is to be investigated for the transition film region using state-of-the-art optical diagnostic techniques. By utilizing a microgravity environment, the length scales of the transition film region can be extended sufficiently, from submicron to micron, to probe and measure the microscale transport fields which are affected by intermolecular forces. Extension of the thin film dimensions under microgravity will be achieved by using a conical evaporator made of a thin silicon substrate under which concentric and individually controlled micro-heaters are vapor-deposited to maintain either a constant surface temperature or a controlled temperature variation. Local heat transfer rates, required to maintain the desired wall temperature boundary condition, will be measured and recorded by the concentric thermoresistance heaters controlled by a Wheatstone bridge circuit, The proposed experiment employs a novel technique to maintain a constant liquid volume and liquid pressure in the capillary region of the evaporating meniscus so as to maintain quasi-stationary conditions during measurements on the transition film region. Alternating use of Fizeau interferometry via white and monochromatic light sources will measure the thin film slope and thickness variation, respectively. Molecular Fluorescence Tracking Velocimetry (MFTV), utilizing caged fluorophores of approximately 10-nm in size as seeding particles, will be used to measure the velocity profiles in the thin film region. An optical sectioning technique using confocal microscopy will allow submicron depthwise resolution for the velocity measurements within the film for thicknesses on the order of a few microns. Digital analysis of the fluorescence image-displacement PDFs, as described in the main proposal, can further enhance the depthwise resolution.
Kihm, K. D.↗
History of Stellar Interferometry
This viewgraph presentation reviews the history of stellar interferometry from the suggestion of Fizeau that stellar interferometry was possible,to the use of the Mark I, II and III for astrometry. Photographs, and parts of original articles are presented.
Michelson↗
Optical Interferometry Motivation and History
A history and motivation of stellar interferometry is presented. The topics include: 1) On Tides, Organ Pipes, and Soap Bubbles; 2) Armand Hippolyte Fizeau (1819-1896); 3) Fizeau Suggests Stellar Interferometry 1867; 4) Edouard Stephan (1837-1923); 5) Foucault Refractor; 6) Albert A. Michelson (1852-1931); 7) On the Application of Interference Methods to Astronomy (1890); 8) Moons of Jupiter (1891); 9) Other Applications in 19th Century; 10) Timeline of Interferometry to 1938; 11) 30 years goes by; 12) Mount Wilson Observatory; 13) Michelson's 20 ft Interferometer; 14) Was Michelson Influenced by Fizeau? 15) Work Continues in the 1920s and 30s; 16) 50 ft Interferometer (1931-1938); 17) Light Paths in the 50 ft Interferometer; 18) Ground-level at the 50 ft; 19) F.G. Pease (1881-1938); 20) Timeline of Optical Interferometry to 1970; 21) A New Type of Stellar Interferometer (1956); 22) Intensity Interferometer (1963- 1976; 23) Robert Hanbury Brown; 24) Interest in Optical Interferometry in the 1960s; 25) Interferometry in the Early 1970s; and 26) A New Frontier is Opened up in 1974.
history↗
From Michelson and Fizeau to a Space-borne Infrared Instrument Capable of Detecting an Earth Twin: Development and Recent Accomplishments of Stellar Interferometry
In recent years, the evolution of technology has led to significant advances in high angular resolution astronomy and the precision of new observations. In particular, the interferometric combination of light from physically separated telescopes has shown both great promise and great challenge. We describe the first scientific results from the Keck Interferometer Nuller an instrument that combines the light of the two largest optical telescopes in the world in the context of the historic development of interferometry from its beginning in the work of Fizeau, Stephan and Michelson. We also describe our efforts to build a space-borne mid-infrared interferometer the Fourier Kelvin Stellar Interferometer (FKSI) - for the characterization of exoplanets. We report results of a recent engineering study on an enhanced version of FKSI that includes 1-meter primary mirrors, 20-meter boom length, and an advanced sun shield that will provide a 45-degree FOR and 40K operating temperature for all optics, including siderostats, enabling the characterization of exozodiacal debris disks, extrasolar planets and other phenomena requiring extremely high spatial resolution. We are further investigating the possibility of characterizing the atmospheres of several super-Earths and a few Earth twins by a combination of spatial modulation and spectral analysis.
Barry, Richard K.↗
Binary pseudo-random array (BPRA) for inspection and calibration for cylindrical wavefront interferometry
High-accuracy metrology is vitally important in manufacturing ultra-high-quality free-form mirrors designed to manipulate X-ray light with nanometer-scale wavelengths. However, surface topography measurements are instrument dependent, and without the knowledge of how the instrument performs under the practical usage conditions, the measured data contain some degree of uncertainty. Binary Pseudo Random Array (BPRA) “white noise” artifact are effective and useful for characterizing the Instrument Transfer Function (ITF) of surface topography metrology tools and wavefront measurement instrument. BPRA artifact contains features with all spatial frequencies in the instrument bandpass with equal weight. As a result, power spectral density of the patterns has a deterministic white-noise-like character that allows direct determination of the ITF with uniform sensitivity over the entire spatial frequency range. The application examples include electron microscopes, x-ray microscopes, interferometric microscopes, and large field-of-view Fizeau Interferometers. Furthermore, we will introduce the application of BPRA method to characterizing the ITF of Cylindrical Wavefront Interferometry (CWI), by developing the BPRA artifact which matches the radius of curvature of the cylindrical wavefront. The data acquisition and analysis procedures for different applications of the ITF calibration technique developed are also discussed.
Munechika, K↗
Phase-Synchronized Modal Testing of Mirror Membrane
The research reports on the development of a whole-field, system-level interferometry technique having phase-synchronized data acquisition and adjustable phase triggering. The technique utilizes a Fizeau interferometer, arbitrary function generator, oscilloscope, trigger filter, and CCD camera to determine the out-of-plane modal frequencies of a thin, highly reflective membrane. The technique generates phase-adjustable CCD camera trigger signals that are synchronized to the audio frequency excitation signal. The surface figures from the resulting interferograms were evaluated with fringe-following software and compared against that of an ideal membrane vibrating at resonance.
Rogers, Ted↗
In situ metrology for adaptive x-ray optics with an absolute distance measuring sensor array
Adaptive x-ray mirrors are emerging as one of the primary solutions for meeting the performance needs of the next generation of x-ray light sources. Currently, these mirrors operate open loop with intermittent feedback from invasive sensors that measure the beam quality. This paper outlines a novel design for real-time in situ metrology of the shape of these mirrors using an array of interferometric sensors that does not interrupt the x-ray beam. We describe a proof-of-principle demonstration which shows sub-nm agreement over a range of mirror deflection magnitudes and shapes as compared to simultaneous measurements by using a large-aperture Fizeau interferometer.
42 ENGINEERING↗
Stitching methods at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF)
X-ray mirror quality has continuously improved over the past 20 years and manufacturers are now able to provide long mirrors with slope errors below 0.2 μrad. Nevertheless, these mirrors are mounted on holders or even mechanical benders to adjust their curvature and their intrinsic quality must be preserved from any parasitic deformation such as twist. The most direct method of detecting these deformations is to measure the 3D topography of the optical surface. At the ESRF metrology laboratory, three different stitching systems are under development based on Fizeau sub-aperture measurements. The first one consists of measuring long flat mirrors, the second based on the relative angle determinable stitching interferometry (RADSI) method developed at SPring-8 is aimed primarily at the measurement of short mirrors with strong curvature down to a few meters, and the last, also based on the RADSI method, is dedicated to characterize longer mirrors with intermediate curvature. For each method we will describe the measurement setup and discuss first results obtained. Micro-stitching interferometry is also currently used at the ESRF metrology laboratory. The technique is suitable for measuring deeply curved aspherical profiles and will be illustrated with results from a Kirkpatrick-Baez mirror system for nano-focusing.
46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
Sub-pixel Spatial Resolution Micro-roughness Measurements with Interlaced Stitching
In this paper we describe a method to increase the spatial resolution of surface micro-roughness measurements. As the surface specifications for precision optics become more demanding, the metrology instruments must cover a broad spatial frequency range. Generally, multiple instruments are used to cover the full range of the specifications. For example, a Fizeau interferometer would be used to test low spatial frequency surface errors, a white light interferometer would be used for mid spatial frequency errors, and an AFM would be used for high spatial frequency errors. For some precision optics, three instruments would be necessary. However, in many applications, an increase in the spatial resolution of a metrology instrument could negate the need for multiple instruments. A solution to increase the spatial resolution of micro-roughness measurements obtained using white light interferometry with "interlaced stitching" will be presented. In "interlaced stitching", multiple interferometric measurements are made as the optic under test (or the CCD array) is laterally shifted at sub-pixel increments. The measurements are then combined to construct a measurement with higher spatial resolution. Initial results obtained while implementing a similar process used to increase the spatial resolution of measurements made with a commercially available Fizeau interferometer will be presented.
Mooney, James T.↗