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At least 19 records
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2017

The Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment (APOGEE)

The Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment (APOGEE), one of the programs in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey III (SDSS-III), has now completed its systematic, homogeneous spectroscopic survey sampling all major populations of the Milky Way. After a three-year observing campaign on the Sloan 2.5 m Telescope, APOGEE has collected a half million high-resolution ( R ∼ 22,500), high signal-to-noise ratio (>100), infrared (1.51–1.70 μ m) spectra for 146,000 stars, with time series information via repeat visits to most of these stars. This paper describes the motivations for the survey and its overall design—hardware, field placement, target selection, operations—and gives an overview of these aspects as well as the data reduction, analysis, and products. An index is also given to the complement of technical papers that describe various critical survey components in detail. Finally, we discuss the achieved survey performance and illustrate the variety of potential uses of the data products by way of a number of science demonstrations, which span from time series analysis of stellar spectral variations and radial velocity variations from stellar companions, to spatial maps of kinematics, metallicity, and abundance patterns across the Galaxy and as a function of age, to new views of the interstellar medium, the chemistry of star clusters, and the discovery of rare stellar species. As part of SDSS-III Data Release 12 and later releases, all of the APOGEE data products are publicly available.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Final Targeting Strategy for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment 2 North Survey

The Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment 2 (APOGEE-2) is a dual-hemisphere, near-infrared (NIR), spectroscopic survey with the goal of producing a chemodynamical mapping of the Milky Way. The targeting for APOGEE-2 is complex and has evolved with time. In this paper, we present the updates and additions to the initial targeting strategy for APOGEE-2N presented in Zasowski et al. (2017). These modifications come in two implementation modes: (i) “Ancillary Science Programs” competitively awarded to Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV PIs through proposal calls in 2015 and 2017 for the pursuit of new scientific avenues outside the main survey, and (ii) an effective 1.5 yr expansion of the survey, known as the Bright Time Extension (BTX), made possible through accrued efficiency gains over the first years of the APOGEE-2N project. For the 23 distinct ancillary programs, we provide descriptions of the scientific aims, target selection, and how to identify these targets within the APOGEE-2 sample. The BTX permitted changes to the main survey strategy, the inclusion of new programs in response to scientific discoveries or to exploit major new data sets not available at the outset of the survey design, and expansions of existing programs to enhance their scientific success and reach. After describing the motivations, implementation, and assessment of these programs, we also leave a summary of lessons learned from nearly a decade of APOGEE-1 and APOGEE-2 survey operations. Finally, a companion paper, F. Santana et al. (submitted; AAS29036), provides a complementary presentation of targeting modifications relevant to APOGEE-2 operations in the Southern Hemisphere.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2018

The Fourteenth Data Release of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey: First Spectroscopic Data from the Extended Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey and from the Second Phase of the Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment

The fourth generation of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS-IV) has been in operation since July 2014. This paper describes the second data release from this phase, and the fourteenth from SDSS overall (making this, Data Release Fourteen or DR14). This release makes public data taken by SDSS-IV in its rst two years of operation (July 2014{2016). Like all previous SDSS releases, DR14 is cumulative, including the most recent reductions and calibrations of all data taken by SDSS since the rst phase began operations in 2000. New in DR14 is the rst public release of data from the extended Baryon Oscillation Sky Survey (eBOSS); the rst data from the second phase of the Apache Point Observatory (APO) Galactic Evolution Experiment (APOGEE-2), including stellar parameter estimates from an innovative data driven machine learning algorithm known as The Cannon; and almost twice as many data cubes from the Mapping Nearby Galaxies at APO (MaNGA) survey as were in the previous release (N = 2812 in total). This paper describes the location and format of the publicly available data from SDSS-IV surveys. We provide references to the important technical papers describing how these data have been taken (both targeting and observation details) and processed for scienti c use. The SDSS website (www.sdss.org) has been updated for this release, and provides links to data downloads, as well as tutorials and examples of data use. SDSS-IV is planning to continue to collect astronomical data until 2020.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2021

WIYN Open Cluster Study. LXXXV. Li in NGC 2243: Implications for Stellar and Galactic Evolution

High-dispersion spectra in the Li λ6708 region have been obtained and analyzed in the old, metal-deficient cluster NGC 2243. From Hydra spectra for 29 astrometric and radial velocity members, we derive rotational velocities, as well as [Fe/H], [Ca/H], [Si/H], and [Ni/H] based on 17, 1, 1, and 3 lines, respectively. Using ROBOSPECT, an automatic equivalent width measurement program, we derive [Fe/H] = −0.54 ± 0.11 (MAD), for an internal precision for the cluster [Fe/H] below 0.03 dex. Given the more restricted line set, comparable values for [Ca/H], [Si/H], and [Ni/H] are −0.48 ± 0.19, −0.44 ± 0.11, and −0.61 ± 0.06, respectively. With E(B − V) = 0.055, appropriate isochrones imply (m − M) = 13.2 ± 0.1 and an age of 3.6 ± 0.2 Gyr. Using available VLT spectra and published Li abundances, we construct an Li sample of over 100 stars extending from the tip of the giant branch to 0.5 mag below the Li dip. The Li dip is well populated and, when combined with results for NGC 6819 and Hyades/Praesepe, implies a mass/metallicity slope of 0.4 M {sub ⊙}/dex for the high-mass edge of the Li dip. The A(Li) distribution among giants reflects the degree of Li variation among the turnoff stars above the Li dip, itself a function of stellar mass and metallicity and strongly anticorrelated with a v {sub rot} distribution that dramatically narrows with age. Potential implications of these patterns for the interpretation of Li among dwarf and giant field populations, especially selection biases tied to age and metallicity, are discussed.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2022

Impact of Hypernova νp-process Nucleosynthesis on the Galactic Chemical Evolution of Mo and Ru

We calculate the Galactic Chemical Evolution of Mo and Ru by taking into account the contribution from νp-process nucleosynthesis. We estimate yields of p-nuclei such as 92,94 Mo and 96,98 Ru through the νp-process in various supernova progenitors based upon recent models. In particular, the νp-process in energetic hypernovae produces a large amount of p-nuclei compared to the yield in ordinary core-collapse SNe. Because of this, the abundances of 92,94 Mo and 96,98 Ru in the Galaxy are significantly enhanced at [Fe/H] = 0 by the νp-process. We find that the νp-process in hypernovae is the main contributor to the elemental abundance of 92 Mo at low metallicity [Fe/H] < −2. Our theoretical prediction of the elemental abundances in metal-poor stars becomes more consistent with observational data when the νp-process in hypernovae is taken into account.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2020

The Impact of Nuclear Physics Uncertainties on Galactic Chemical Evolution Predictions

Modeling the evolution of the elements in the Milky Way is a multidisciplinary and challenging task. In addition to simulating the ~13 billion years evolution of our Galaxy, chemical evolution simulations must keep track of the elements synthesized and ejected from every astrophysical site of interest (e.g., supernova, compact binary merger). The elemental abundances of such ejecta, which are a fundamental input for chemical evolution codes, are usually taken from theoretical nucleosynthesis calculations performed by the nuclear astrophysics community. Therefore, almost all chemical evolution predictions rely on the nuclear physics behind those calculations. In this proceedings article, we highlight the impact of nuclear physics uncertainties on galactic chemical evolution predictions. We demonstrate that nuclear physics and galactic evolution uncertainties both have a significant impact on interpreting the origin of neutron-capture elements in our Solar System. Those results serve as a motivation to create and maintain collaborations between the fields of nuclear astrophysics and galaxy evolution.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2017

A New Fokker–Planck Approach for the Relaxation-driven Evolution of Galactic Nuclei

We present an approach for simulating the collisional evolution of spherical isotropic stellar systems based on the one-dimensional Fokker–Planck equation. A novel aspect is that we use the phase volume as the argument of the distribution function instead of the traditionally used energy, which facilitates the solution. The publicly available code PhaseFlow implements a high-accuracy finite-element method for the Fokker–Planck equation, and can handle multiple-component systems, optionally with the central black hole and taking into account loss-cone effects and star formation. We discuss the energy balance in the general setting, and in application to the Bahcall–Wolf cusp around a central black hole, for which we derive a perturbative solution. We stress that the cusp is not a steady-state structure, but rather evolves in amplitude while retaining an approximately ρ∝r{sup −7/4} density profile. Finally, we apply the method to the nuclear star cluster of the milky Way, and illustrate a possible evolutionary scenario in which a two-component system of lighter main-sequence stars and stellar-mass black holes develops a Bahcall–Wolf cusp in the heavier component and a weaker ρ∝r{sup −3/2} cusp in the lighter, visible component, over the period of several Gyr. The present-day density profile is consistent with the recently detected mild cusp inside the central parsec, and is weakly sensitive to initial conditions.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Galactic Chemical Evolution of Short-lived Radioactive Isotopes Produced by Explosive Nucleosynthesis: 60 Fe and 53 Mn

Several short-lived radionuclides (SLRs) are know to have existed in the early solar system (ESS). These species, which typically decay with half-lives of the order of a few million years, can be used to probe the timescales of events preceding the birth of the Sun. We investigate the ESS origin of 53 Mn, produced by core-collapse supernovae (CCSNe) and Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia), and 60 Fe, produced exclusively by CCSNe. We model the evolution of the radioactive-to-stable abundance ratios of these SLRs with a Galactic chemical evolution (GCE) framework accounting for different SN yields, SN Ia delay times, and other Galactic features (K). A further set of models is calculated assuming that SNe Ia did not contribute any 53 Mn to the ESS. The predicted ratios are compared to meteoritic ratios to derive a distribution of solar isolation times that includes uncertainties due to stochastic chemical enrichment and measurements of the ESS values. The isolation times are then compared to those of 107 Pd and 182 Hf calculated in previous work. A self-consistent solution can be found within the current uncertainties, especially when using the GCE setups with K = 1.6 and 2.3, although the maximum likelihood for the 60 Fe distribution is typically ∼4–5 Myr shorter than for 53 Mn. The predicted 60 Fe/ 53 Mn ratio, instead, is completely inconsistent with the ESS value; this could be resolved using a larger fraction of faint CCSNe than usually considered in GCE models.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Galactic chemical evolution with the short-lived isotopes 53 Mn, 60 Fe, 182 Hf, and 244 Pu

We run a three-dimensional Galactic chemical evolution (GCE) model to follow the propagation of 53 Mn from supernovae of type Ia (SNIa), 60 Fe from core-collapse supernovae (CCSNe), 182 Hf from intermediate mass stars (IMSs), and 244 Pu from neutron star mergers (NSMs) in the Galaxy. We compare the GCE of these short-lived radioactive isotopes (SLRs) to recent detections on the deep-sea floor. We find that although these SLRs originate from different sites, they often arrive conjointly on Earth.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2017

The {sup 12}C/{sup 13}C Ratio in Sgr B2(N): Constraints for Galactic Chemical Evolution and Isotopic Chemistry

A study has been conducted of {sup 12}C/{sup 13}C ratios in five complex molecules in the Galactic center. H{sub 2}CS, CH{sub 3}CCH, NH{sub 2}CHO, CH{sub 2}CHCN, and CH{sub 3}CH{sub 2}CN and their {sup 13}C-substituted species have been observed in numerous transitions at 1, 2, and 3 mm, acquired in a spectral-line survey of Sgr B2(N), conducted with the telescopes of the Arizona Radio Observatory (ARO). Between 22 and 54 individual, unblended lines for the {sup 12}C species and 2–54 for {sup 13}C-substituted analogs were modeled in a global radiative transfer analysis. All five molecules were found to consistently exhibit two velocity components near V {sub LSR} ∼ 64 and 73 km s{sup −1}, with column densities ranging from N {sub tot} ∼ 3 × 10{sup 14} − 4 × 10{sup 17} cm{sup −2} and ∼2 × 10{sup 13} − 1 × 10{sup 17} cm{sup −2} for the {sup 12}C and {sup 13}C species, respectively. Based on 14 different isotopic combinations, ratios were obtained in the range {sup 12}C/{sup 13}C = 15 ± 5 to 33 ± 13, with an average value of 24 ± 7, based on comparison of column densities. These measurements better anchor the {sup 12}C/{sup 13}C ratio at the Galactic center, and suggest a slightly revised isotope gradient of {sup 12}C/{sup 13}C = 5.21(0.52) D {sub GC} + 22.6(3.3). As indicated by the column densities, no preferential {sup 13}C enrichment was found on the differing carbon sites of CH{sub 3}CCH, CH{sub 2}CHCN, and CH{sub 3}CH{sub 2}CN. Because of the elevated temperatures in Sgr B2(N), {sup 13}C isotopic substitution is effectively “scrambled,” diminishing chemical fractionation effects. The resulting ratios thus reflect stellar nucleosynthesis and Galactic chemical evolution, as is likely the case for most warm clouds.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Impact of the Latest 22 Ne+ α Reaction Rates on Nucleosynthesis in Massive Stars and Galactic Chemical Evolution

In massive stars (initial mass of ≳9 M ⊙ ), the weak s- (slow neutron capture) process produces elements between Fe and Zr, enriching the Galaxy with these elements through core-collapse supernova explosions. The weak s-process nucleosynthesis is driven by neutrons produced in the 22 Ne(α, n) 25 Mg reaction during convective He core and C shell burning. The yields of heavy elements thus depend on the 22 Ne(α, n) 25 Mg and the competitive 22 Ne(α, γ) 26 Mg reaction rates, which are dominated by several narrow-resonance reactions. While the accuracy of these rates has been under debate for decades, recent experimental efforts, including ours, drastically reduced these uncertainties. In this work, we use a set of 280 massive star nucleosynthesis models calculated using different 22 Ne(α, n) 25 Mg and 22 Ne(α, γ) 26 Mg rates and a galactic chemical evolution (GCE) study to probe their impact on the weak s-process elemental abundances in the Galaxy. The GCE was computed with the OMEGA+ code, using the new sets of stellar yields with different 22 Ne+α rates. From GCE, we find that these rates are causing up to 0.45 dex of variations in the [Cu/Fe], [Ga/Fe], and [Ge/Fe] ratios predicted at solar metallicity. The greatest impact on the stellar nucleosynthesis and GCE results derives from uncertainties in the (α, n) strength (ωγ (α,n) ) of the E x = 11.32 MeV resonance. We show that variations observed in the GCE calculations for weak s-process elements become negligibly smaller than dispersions found in observations once the ωγ (α,n) is accurately determined within the uncertainty of 10%–20% (typically reported experimental errors for the resonance) in future nuclear physics experiments.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Decoding the age–chemical structure of the Milky Way disc: an application of copulas and elicitable maps

In the Milky Way, the distribution of stars in the [α/Fe] versus [Fe/H] and [Fe/H] versus age planes holds essential information about the history of star formation, accretion, and dynamical evolution of the Galactic disc. We investigate these planes by applying novel statistical methods called copulas and elicitable maps to the ages and abundances of red giants in the Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment survey. We find that the high- and low-α disc stars have a clean separation in copula space and use this to provide an automated separation of the α sequences using a purely statistical approach. This separation reveals that the high-α disc ends at the same [α/Fe] and age at high [Fe/H] as the low-[Fe/H] start of the low-α disc, thus supporting a sequential formation scenario for the high- and low-α discs. We then combine copulas with elicitable maps to precisely obtain the correlation between stellar age τ and metallicity [Fe/H] conditional on Galactocentric radius R and height z in the range 0 < R < 20 kpc and |z| < 2 kpc. The resulting trends in the age–metallicity correlation with radius, height, and [α/Fe] demonstrate a ≈0 correlation wherever kinematically cold orbits dominate, while the naively expected negative correlation is present where kinematically hot orbits dominate. This is consistent with the effects of spiral-driven radial migration, which must be strong enough to completely flatten the age–metallicity structure of the low-α disc.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2017

Systematic Survey for [O ii], [O iii], and Hα Blobs at z = 0.1–1.5: The Implication for Evolution of Galactic-scale Outflow

We conduct a systematic search for galaxies at z=0.1--1.5 with [O ii]λ3727, [O iii]λ5007, or Hα λ6563 emission lines extended over at least 30 kpc by using deep narrowband and broadband imaging in the Subaru-XMM Deep Survey field. These extended emission-line galaxies are dubbed [O ii], [O iii], or Hα blobs. Based on a new selection method that securely selects extended emission-line galaxies, we find 77 blobs at z=0.40--1.46 with the isophotal area of emission lines down to 1.2×10{sup −18} erg s{sup −1} cm{sup −2} kpc{sup −2}. Four of them are spectroscopically confirmed to be [O iii] blobs at z = 0.83. We identify AGN activities in eight blobs with X-ray and radio data, and find that the fraction of AGN contribution increases with increasing isophotal area of the extended emission. With the Kolmogorov–Smirnov (KS) and Anderson–Darling tests, we confirm that the stellar-mass distributions of Hα and [O ii] blobs are not drawn from those of the emitters at the >90% confidence level in that Hα and [O ii] blobs are located at the massive end of the distributions, but cannot reject a null hypothesis of being the same distributions in terms of the specific star formation rates. It is suggested that galactic-scale outflows tend to be more prominent in more massive star-forming galaxies. Exploiting our sample homogeneously selected over the large area, we derive the number densities of blobs at each epoch. The number densities of blobs decrease drastically with redshifts at a rate that is larger than that of the decrease of cosmic star formation densities.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2017

Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV: Mapping the Milky Way, Nearby Galaxies, and the Distant Universe

We describe the Sloan Digital Sky Survey IV (SDSS-IV), a project encompassing three major spectroscopic programs. The Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment 2 (APOGEE-2) is observing hundreds of thousands of Milky Way stars at high resolution and high signal-to-noise ratios in the near-infrared. The Mapping Nearby Galaxies at Apache Point Observatory (MaNGA) survey is obtaining spatially resolved spectroscopy for thousands of nearby galaxies (median z∼0.03). The extended Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey (eBOSS) is mapping the galaxy, quasar, and neutral gas distributions between z∼0.6 and 3.5 to constrain cosmology using baryon acoustic oscillations, redshift space distortions, and the shape of the power spectrum. Within eBOSS, we are conducting two major subprograms: the SPectroscopic IDentification of eROSITA Sources (SPIDERS), investigating X-ray AGNs and galaxies in X-ray clusters, and the Time Domain Spectroscopic Survey (TDSS), obtaining spectra of variable sources. All programs use the 2.5 m Sloan Foundation Telescope at the Apache Point Observatory; observations there began in Summer 2014. APOGEE-2 also operates a second near-infrared spectrograph at the 2.5 m du Pont Telescope at Las Campanas Observatory, with observations beginning in early 2017. Observations at both facilities are scheduled to continue through 2020. In keeping with previous SDSS policy, SDSS-IV provides regularly scheduled public data releases; the first one, Data Release 13, was made available in 2016 July.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2022

The Open Cluster Chemical Abundances and Mapping Survey. VII. APOGEE DR17 [C/N]–Age Calibration

Large-scale surveys open the possibility to investigate Galactic evolution both chemically and kinematically; however, reliable stellar ages remain a major challenge. Detailed chemical information provided by high-resolution spectroscopic surveys of the stars in clusters can be used as a means to calibrate recently developed chemical tools for age-dating field stars. Using data from the Open Cluster Abundances and Mapping survey, based on the Sloan Digital Sky Survey/Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment 2 survey, we derive a new empirical relationship between open cluster stellar ages and the carbon-to-nitrogen ([C/N]) abundance ratios for evolved stars, primarily those on the red giant branch. With this calibration, [C/N] can be used as a chemical clock for evolved field stars to investigate the formation and evolution of different parts of our Galaxy. We explore how mixing effects at different stellar evolutionary phases, like the red clump, affect the derived calibration. We have established the [C/N]–age calibration for APOGEE Data Release 17 (DR17) giant star abundances to be $\mathrm{log}{[\mathrm{Age}(\mathrm{yr})]}_{\mathrm{DR}17}=10.14\,(\pm 0.08)+2.23(\pm 0.19)\,[{\rm{C}}/{\rm{N}}]$, usable for $8.62\leqslant \mathrm{log}(\mathrm{Age}[\mathrm{yr}])\leqslant 9.82$, derived from a uniform sample of 49 clusters observed as part of APOGEE DR17 applicable primarily to metal-rich, thin- and thick-disk giant stars. This measured [C/N]–age APOGEE DR17 calibration is also shown to be consistent with asteroseismic ages derived from Kepler photometry.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2023

A Tale of Two Disks: Mapping the Milky Way with the Final Data Release of APOGEE

We present new maps of the Milky Way disk showing the distribution of metallicity ([Fe/H]), α-element abundances ([Mg/Fe]), and stellar age, using a sample of 66,496 red giant stars from the final data release (DR17) of the Apache Point Observatory Galactic Evolution Experiment survey. We measure radial and vertical gradients, quantify the distribution functions for age and metallicity, and explore chemical clock relations across the Milky Way for the low-α disk, high-α disk, and total population independently. The low-α disk exhibits a negative radial metallicity gradient of -0.06 ± 0.001 dex kpc -1 , which flattens with distance from the midplane. The high-α disk shows a flat radial gradient in metallicity and age across nearly all locations of the disk. The age and metallicity distribution functions shift from negatively skewed in the inner Galaxy to positively skewed at large radius. Significant bimodality in the [Mg/Fe]–[Fe/H] plane and in the [Mg/Fe]–age relation persist across the entire disk. The age estimates have typical uncertainties of ~0.15 in log(age) and may be subject to additional systematic errors, which impose limitations on conclusions drawn from this sample. Nevertheless, these results act as critical constraints on galactic evolution models, constraining which physical processes played a dominant role in the formation of the Milky Way disk. We discuss how radial migration predicts many of the observed trends near the solar neighborhood and in the outer disk, but an additional more dramatic evolution history, such as the multi-infall model or a merger event, is needed to explain the chemical and age bimodality elsewhere in the Galaxy.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2017

The Post-periapsis Evolution of Galactic Center Source G1: The Second Case of a Resolved Tidal Interaction with a Supermassive Black Hole

We present new adaptive optics (AO) imaging and spectroscopic measurements of Galactic center source G1 from W. M. Keck Observatory. Our goal is to understand its nature and relationship to G2, which is the first example of a spatially resolved object interacting with a supermassive black hole (SMBH). Both objects have been monitored with AO for the past decade (2003–2014) and are comparatively close to the black hole ( a {sub min} ∼ 200–300 au) on very eccentric orbits ( e {sub G1} ∼ 0.99; e {sub G2} ∼ 0.96). While G2 has been tracked before and during periapsis passage ( T {sub 0} ∼ 2014.2), G1 has been followed since soon after emerging from periapsis ( T {sub 0} ∼ 2001.3). Our observations of G1 double the previously reported observational time baseline, which improves its orbital parameter determinations. G1's orbital trajectory appears to be in the same plane as that of G2 but with a significantly different argument of periapsis (Δ ω = 21° ± 4°). This suggests that G1 is an independent object and not part of a gas stream containing G2, as has been proposed. Furthermore, we show for the first time that (1) G1 is extended in the epochs closest to periapsis along the direction of orbital motion, and (2) it becomes significantly smaller over time (450 au in 2004 to less than 170 au in 2009). Based on these observations, G1 appears to be the second example of an object tidally interacting with an SMBH. G1's existence 14 yr after periapsis, along with its compactness in epochs further from the time of periapsis, suggest that this source is stellar in nature.

79 ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS↗