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At least 19 records
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Impact Forces From Artificial and Real Birds on a Large Diameter Hopkinson Bar

Forces were measured from normal impacts with two different artificial bird recipes and two species of real birds on a very rigid flat surface. The tests were conducted by launching the soft body projectiles axially into a Hopkinson bar in accordance with the SAE AS6940 test standard at three different nominal impact conditions: (a) a 1 kg projectile at an impact velocity of 49 m/sec; (b) a 1.8 kg projectile at an impact velocity of 110 m/sec; and (c) a 1.8 kg projectile at an impact velocity of 310 m/sec. At each condition two artificial birds and one real bird projectile were tested with at least three test repeats. Simulations were conducted to assess the effects of projectile orientation and velocity on predicted forces. The Hopkinson bar consisted of an Aluminum 6061 solid cylindrical bar with a diameter of 305 mm and a length of 7.31 m, made up of two 3.66 m long sections that were in axial contact with each other. The bar was instrumented for strain measurement at two locations, 457.2 mm and 609.6 mm (1.5 and 2 diameters) from the impacted face. Forces were calculated from the measured strain. In addition, digital image correlation (DIC) was used to measure the velocity of the free end of the bar. The real bird projectiles were 1 kg Mallard ducks and 1.8 kg Golden Comet chickens that were prepared per ASTM F330-21. Prior to testing, the real birds were placed in muslin bags to minimize tumbling during flight. Two artificial bird formulations were tested, one produced by the University of Dayton Research Institute (UDRI) and the other by the German Aerospace Center, DLR. The UDRI projectile was a homogeneous, relatively soft solid, formulated with a mixture of water, gelatin and phenolic micro-balloons to achieve a nominal density of 0.95 g/cc. The DLR projectile consisted of a printed plastic shell with internal plastic ribs and filled with a gel material. The projectiles were designed such that the overall average density was the desired value of 0.95 g/cc. Initial testing showed that contact between the two Hopkinson bar segments was not sufficient to allow full transmission of the waves through the interface. For the 49 m/sec and 110 m/sec tests this resulted in reflections returning to the strain measurement site prior to the end of the impact. For these tests only a portion of the force pulse could be accurately measured. For the highest velocity tests at 310 m/sec the force pulse was complete by the time reflected waves interfered with the response. Despite this limitation, useful force data were obtained for all velocities. Impact forces were very sensitive to the impact orientation and velocity. The force history generally consisted of an initial region with varying amplitude followed by a relatively constant amplitude response. The steady state region was similar among all projectiles and similar to what would be predicted for an inviscid fluid with a density of 0.95 g/cc. The initial part of the force response exhibited varying degrees of test-to-test repeatability associated with each projectile type. Forces calculated from DIC velocity measurements of the free end of the bar compared favorably those from the strain measurements. In general, the artificial projectile impact forces were quite repeatable from test to test, with some exceptions which could be explained by issues associated with either the projectile itself or with how the projectile exited the gun barrel. For all impact velocities the initial portion of the impact force from the bird projectiles exhibited large test-to-test variability. In this paper, impact forces for three types of projectiles at three impact velocities will be presented with an emphasis on the test-to-test repeatability of the results. Based on test and simulation results a proposed method for normalizing the impact force to minimize effects of differences in projectile orientation, impact velocity and density will also be discussed.

Bird strike↗
NASA NTRS2024

Hopkinson Bar Impact Force Measurement for Application to Development of an Artificial Bird

A test method has been published for measuring forces from bird cadavers and artificial birds to demonstrate equivalency to support the use of artificial birds in aircraft certification testing. The test method involves a large diameter Hopkinson bar as the technique for measuring and comparing forces. The method involves the assumption that a force on one end of the bar results in a one-dimensional plane wave that travels down the bar. To avoid reflected waves from the end of the bar overlapping the input pulse, and due to practical limitations on the length of the bar, strain transducers are located relatively close to the impacted face of the bar, raising questions about the validity of the assumption of one-dimensional wave propagation. In addition, the large diameter of the bar can introduce dispersion effects in the propagated pulse. These must be assessed to determine the impact on the accuracy of impact force measurements and, if significant, dispersion correction techniques must be used. In this study analytical, experimental, and computational methods are used to analyze the wave propagation characteristics for impact forces expected from realistic bird impacts. While wave dispersion and effects of non-concentric impacts are present, the resulting errors are relatively small. For the response we expect to see in bird impacts up to velocities of approximately 300 m/sec the large diameter Hopkinson bar test appears to be an acceptable method for measuring the impact forces and comparing the response of real and proposed artificial birds.

Birdstrike↗
NASA NTRS2025

Direct Impact Split-Hopkinson Bar Experiment for Compression Testing at Strain Rate of 50,000 S-1

A direct impact Hopkinson compression bar experiment is used for compression testing at strain rates in the order of 50,000 s-1. A short specimen mounted on the cross-section surface of a transmitter bar is impacted directly by a projectile (the incident bar in the classical split Hopkinson bar is eliminated).The quantities measured in the test are the projectile impact velocity, the force in the transmitter bar and the strain on the surface of the specimen, which is measured using the digital image correlation method with high-speed cameras. The deformation measurements show a nonuniform deformation in the specimen. To study the strain rate sensitivity properties of the specimen’s material, the experiment is simulated using an assumed material model properties which is validated by comparing the calculated and measured quantities. For aluminum 2024-T351 the results show a small strain rate sensitivity (increase of stress with strain rate) at strain rates above 10,000 s-1.

Nathan Spulak↗
DOE OSTI2010

Split Hopkinson bar experiments of preloaded interfaces.

Preloads are routinely applied to stiffen structural members in many applications. However, the preloaded structural members have been observed to lose a significant portion of the imposed load due to internal relaxation mechanisms during impulsive impact events. This paper describes the design and initial experiments for a novel Hopkinson bar configuration designed to investigate the effect of preloads on the stress wave propagation across interfaces between the incident and transmission bars. Dynamic responses are measured by a variety of sensors, including accelerometers, strain gages, and a laser vibrometer. The transmissibility of a titanium incident bar is measured to establish the baseline frequency response between the input and the test interface. Wave transmission across an titanium-aluminum interface is also examined by analyzing the frequency response function, transmission efficiency, and transmissibility between the incident and transmitted waves. The presence of vacuum grease is shown to strongly influence the dynamic behavior of the system.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
DOE OSTI2013

High speed synchrotron x-ray phase contrast imaging of dynamic material response to split Hopkinson bar loading

The successful process of amalgamating both the time-resolved imaging capabilities present at the Advanced Photon Source beamline 32ID-B and the proficiency of high-rate loading offered by the split Hopkinson or Kolsky compression/tension bar apparatus is discussed and verification of system effectiveness is expressed via dynamic experiments on various material systems. Single particle sand interaction along with glass cracking during dynamic compression, and fiber-epoxy interfacial failure, ligament-bone debonding, and single-crystal silicon fragmentation due to dynamic tension, were imaged with 0.5 {mu}s temporal resolution and {mu}m-level spatial resolution. Synchrotron x-ray phase contrast imaging of said material systems being loaded with the Kolsky bar apparatus demonstratively depicts the effectiveness of the novel union between these two powerful techniques, thereby allowing for in situ analysis of the interior of the material system during high-rate loading for a variety of applications.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2016

Application of photon Doppler velocimetry to direct impact Hopkinson pressure bars

Direct impact Hopkinson pressure bar systems offer many potential advantages over split Hopkinson pressure bars, including access to higher strain rates, higher strains for equivalent striker velocity and system length, lower dispersion, and faster achievement of force equilibrium. Currently, these advantages are gained at the expense of all information about the striker impacted specimen face, preventing the experimental determination of force equilibrium, and requiring approximations to be made on the sample deformation history. In this paper, we discuss an experimental method and complementary data analysis for using photon Doppler velocimetry to measure surface velocities of the striker and output bars in a direct impact bar experiment, allowing similar data to be recorded as in a split bar system. We discuss extracting velocity and force measurements, and the precision of measurements. Results obtained using the technique are compared to equivalent split bar tests, showing improved stress measurements for the lowest and highest strains in fully dense metals, and improvement for all strains in slow and non-equilibrating materials.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2019

Extending Beryllium Strength Calibration To High Strain-rate Regimes

Current calibration of the PTW strength model for beryllium is accomplished using fits to Hopkinson bar experiments. Unfortunately, Hopkinson bar tests on beryllium only allow for strain-rates of up to $5 * 10^{3} s^{-1}.$ It has been shown previously that, in higher strain-rate experiments such as flyer-plate impact tests, this calibrated strength model causes simulations with beryllium to diverge from the observed response. In this work we use a particle swarm optimization algorithm to arrive at a better calibration of beryllium strength through fits to observed material responses during flyer-plate impact experiments. We show that the PTW strength model for beryllium can be tuned to provide a much better fit to flyer-plate responses. To mitigate the effect of this new calibration on fits to Hopkinson bar data we calibrate to flyer-plate impact data using only parameters within the medium strain-rate regime of the PTW model.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2016

A Report on the Validation of Beryllium Strength Models

This report discusses work on validating beryllium strength models with flyer plate and Taylor rod experimental data. Strength models are calibrated with Hopkinson bar and quasi-static data. The Hopkinson bar data for beryllium provides strain rates up to about 4000 per second. A limitation of the Hopkinson bar data for beryllium is that it only provides information on strain up to about 0.15. The lack of high strain data at high strain rates makes it difficult to distinguish between various strength model settings. The PTW model has been calibrated many different times over the last 12 years. The lack of high strain data for high strain rates has resulted in these calibrated PTW models for beryllium exhibiting significantly different behavior when extrapolated to high strain. For beryllium, the α parameter of PTW has recently been calibrated to high precision shear modulus data. In the past the α value for beryllium was set based on expert judgment. The new α value for beryllium was used in a calibration of the beryllium PTW model by Sky Sjue. The calibration by Sjue used EOS table information to model the temperature dependence of the heat capacity. Also, the calibration by Sjue used EOS table information to model the density changes of the beryllium sample during the Hopkinson bar and quasi-static experiments. In this paper, the calibrated PTW model by Sjue is compared against experimental data and other strength models. The other strength models being considered are a PTW model calibrated by Shuh- Rong Chen and a Steinberg-Guinan type model by John Pedicini. The three strength models are used in a comparison against flyer plate and Taylor rod data. The results show that the Chen PTW model provides better agreement to this data. The Chen PTW model settings have been previously adjusted to provide a better fit to flyer plate data, whereas the Sjue PTW model has not been changed based on flyer plate data. However, the Sjue model provides a reasonable fit to flyer plate and Taylor rod data, and also gives a better match to recently analyzed Z-machine data which has a strain of about 0.35 and a strain rate of 3e5 s -1 .

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2016

Characterization and modeling of mechanical behavior of single crystal titanium deformed by split-Hopkinson pressure bar

Single crystal titanium samples were dynamically loaded using split-Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) and the resulting microstructures were examined. Characterization of the twins and dislocations present in the microstructure was conducted to understand the pathway for observed mechanical behavior. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) was used to measure textures and quantify twinning. Microstructures were profusely twinned after loading, and twin variants and corresponding textures were different as a function of initial orientation. Focused ion beam (FIB) foils were created to analyze dislocation content using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Large amounts of dislocations were present, indicating that plasticity was achieved through slip and twinning together. Viscoplastic self-consistent (VPSC) modeling was used to confirm the complex order of operations during deformation. The activation of different mechanisms was highly dependent upon crystal orientation. For [0001] and View the MathML source[101¯1]-oriented crystals, compressive twinning was observed, followed by secondary tensile twinning. Furthermore, dislocations though prevalent in the microstructure, contributed to final texture far less than twinning.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2011

Split Hopkinson Resonant Bar Test for Sonic-Frequency Acoustic Velocity and Attenuation Measurements of Small, Isotropic Geologic Samples

Mechanical properties (seismic velocities and attenuation) of geological materials are often frequency dependent, which necessitates measurements of the properties at frequencies relevant to a problem at hand. Conventional acoustic resonant bar tests allow measuring seismic properties of rocks and sediments at sonic frequencies (several kilohertz) that are close to the frequencies employed for geophysical exploration of oil and gas resources. However, the tests require a long, slender sample, which is often difficult to obtain from the deep subsurface or from weak and fractured geological formations. In this paper, an alternative measurement technique to conventional resonant bar tests is presented. This technique uses only a small, jacketed rock or sediment core sample mediating a pair of long, metal extension bars with attached seismic source and receiver - the same geometry as the split Hopkinson pressure bar test for large-strain, dynamic impact experiments. Because of the length and mass added to the sample, the resonance frequency of the entire system can be lowered significantly, compared to the sample alone. The experiment can be conducted under elevated confining pressures up to tens of MPa and temperatures above 100 C, and concurrently with x-ray CT imaging. The described Split Hopkinson Resonant Bar (SHRB) test is applied in two steps. First, extension and torsion-mode resonance frequencies and attenuation of the entire system are measured. Next, numerical inversions for the complex Young's and shear moduli of the sample are performed. One particularly important step is the correction of the inverted Young's moduli for the effect of sample-rod interfaces. Examples of the application are given for homogeneous, isotropic polymer samples and a natural rock sample.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Miniature Beryllium Split-Hopkinson Pressure Bars for Extending the Range of Achievable Strain-Rates

Conventional Split Hopkinson Pressure Bars (SHPB) or “Kolsky” bars are often used for determining the high-rate compressive yield and failure strength of materials. However, for experiments generating very high strain-rates (>10 3 /s) miniaturization of the setup is often required for minimizing the effects of elastic wave dispersion in order to enable the inference of decreasingly short loading events from the data. Miniature aluminum and steel bars are often sufficient for meeting these requirements. However, for high enough strain-rates, miniaturization of steel or aluminum Kolsky bars may require prohibitively small diameter bars and test specimens that could become inappropriate for inferring representative properties of materials with large grain size relative to the test specimen size. The use of a beryllium Kolsky bar setup is expected to enable high rates to be accessible with larger diameter bars/specimen combinations due to the inherent physical properties of beryllium, which are expected to minimize the effects of elastic wave dispersion. For this reason, a series of beryllium Kolsky bars have been developed, and, in this paper, the dispersion characteristics of these bars are measured and compare the data with those of similarly sized 7075-T6 aluminum and C350 maraging steel. The results, which agree well with the theory, show no appreciable frequency dependence of the elastic wavespeed in the data from the beryllium bars, demonstrating its advantage over aluminum and steel in application to Kolsky bars.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2011

Application of the Split Hopkinson Resonant Bar Test for Seismic Property Characterization of Hydrate-bearing Sand Undergoing Water Saturation

Conventional resonant bar tests allow the measurement of seismic properties of rocks and sediments at low frequencies (several kilohertz). However, the tests require a long, slender sample which is often difficult to obtain from the deep subsurface and weak and fractured formations. We present an alternative low-frequency measurement technique to the conventional resonant bar tests. This technique involves a jacketed core sample placed between a pair of long, metal extension rods with attached seismic source and receiver—the same geometry as the split Hopkinson pressure bar test for large-strain, dynamic impact experiments. Because of the added length and mass to the sample, the resonance frequency of the entire system can be lowered significantly, compared to the sample alone. The proposed “Split Hopkinson Resonant Bar (SHRB)” test is applied in two steps. In the first step, extension and torsion-mode resonance frequencies and attenuation of the system are measured. Then, numerical inversions for the compressional and shear wave velocities and attenuation are performed. We initially applied the SHRB test to synthetic materials (plastics) for testing its accuracy, then used it for measuring the seismic velocities and attenuation of a rock core containing supercritical CO 2 , and a sediment core while methane hydrate formed in the pore space.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗