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NASA NTRS2019

The Effect of Stainless Steel 304 Surface Roughness on Ice Adhesion Shear Strength of Accreted Impact Ice

Aircraft in-flight icing is problematic due to the ad-verse effect on vehicle performance. It occurs when supercooled water droplets (SCWD) present in clouds, under the appropriate environmental conditions, col-lide with the aircraft surface resulting in accretion of ice (i.e., impact icing). Impact ice can range from clear/glaze to rime or a combination of the two (i.e., mixed) with the type determined by the air temperature (0 to -20°C), liquid water content (LWC, 0.3-0.6 g/cu.m), and droplet size [median volumetric diameter (MVD) of 15-40 µm] present during accretion.1 These impact icing events generally occur at temperatures ranging from 0 to -20°C. Below -20°C, ice crystals dominate the environment and typically do not adhere to the aircraft surface. A main difference between an impact icing occurrence and a slow growth icing (i.e., freezer ice) one is the speed of the icing event. Besides environmental conditions, ice adhesion strength (IAS) to a metallic substrate depends upon surface roughness. It is known that increasing surface roughness and decreasing temperature lead to in-creases in IAS.

Smith, Joseph G., Jr.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Analysis of aircraft engine blade subject to ice impact

The ice impact on the engine blade made of layered composite is simulated. The ice piece is modeled as an equivalent spherical object and has the velocity opposite to that of the aircraft with direction parallel to the engine axis. Near the impact region and along the leading edge, the blade is assumed to be fully stressed and undergoes large deflection. A specified portion of the blade around the impact region is modeled. The effect of ice size and velocity on the average leading edge strain are investigated for a modified SR-2 model unswept composite propfan blade. Parametric studies are performed to study the response due to ice impact at various locations along the span. Also, the effects of engine speed on the strain and impact displacements are discussed. It is found that for a given engine speed, a critical ice speed exists that corresponds to the maximum strain and this critical speed increases with increase in the engine speed.

Reddy, E. S.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Analysis of aircraft engine blade subject to ice impact

The ice impact problem on an engine blade made of layered composite is simulated. The ice piece is modeled as an equivalent spherical object and has the velocity opposite to that of the aircraft with direction parallel to the engine axis. Near the impact region and along the leading edge, the blade is assumed to be fully stressed and undergoes large deflection. A specified portion of the blade around the impact region is modeled. The effect of ice size and velocity on the average leading edge strain are investigated for a modified SR-2 model unswept composite propfan blade. Parametric studies are performed to study the response due to ice impact at various locations along the span. Also, the effects of engine speed on the strain and impact displacements are discussed. It is found that for a given engine speed, a critical ice speed exists that corresponds to the maximum strain and this critical speed increases with increase in the engine speed.

Reddy, E. S.↗

NASA NTRS1993

An overview of shed ice impact in the NASA Lewis Icing Research Tunnel

One of the areas of active research in commercial and military rotorcraft is directed toward developing the capability of sustained flight in icing conditions. The emphasis to date has been on the accretion and subsequent shedding of ice in an icing environment, where the shedding may be natural or induced. Historically, shed-ice particles have been a problem for aircraft, particularly rotorcraft. Because of the high particle velocities involved, damage to a fuselage or other airframe component from a shed-ice impact can be significant. Design rules for damage tolerance from shed-ice impact are not well developed because of a lack of experimental data. Thus, NASA Lewis (LeRC) has begun an effort to develop a database of impact force and energy resulting from shed ice. This effort consisted of a test of NASA LeRC's Model Rotor Test Rig (MRTR) in the Icing Research Tunnel (IRT). Both natural shedding and forced shedding were investigated. Forced shedding was achieved by fitting the rotor blades with Small Tube Pneumatic (STP) deicer boots manufactured by BF Goodrich. A detailed description of the test is given as well as the design of a new impact sensor which measures the force-time history of an impacting ice fragment. A brief discussion of the procedure to infer impact energy from a force-time trace are required for the impact-energy calculations. Recommendations and future plans for this research area are also provided.

Bond, Thomas H.↗

NASA NTRS1993

An overview of shed ice impact studies in the NASA Lewis Icing Research Tunnel

Britton, Randall K.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Impact Ice Adhesion at NASA Glenn: Current Experimental Methods and Supporting Measurements

When examining the literature on the adhesion strength of impact ice, there have been a wide range of methodologies tried to measure the required stresses to induce interfacial delamination. Utilizing the Icing Research Tunnel at the NASA Glenn Research Center to generate the impact ice required for this work, several different mechanical tests have been and are being developed to determine the stresses along the interface between ice and coupon. This set of tests includes the technical mature modified lap joint test which has been used to conduct ice adhesion studies through a wide sweep of icing conditions. To conduct in situ ice adhesion measurements inside of the Icing Research Tunnel, several new experiments are currently being developed to make ice adhesion measurements during and immediately after ice accretion. In addition to these experimental methods, several supporting measurement techniques have been developed to allow for a better understanding on the influence of icing cloud conditions on the mechanical behavior of impact ice. Digital image correlation has been successfully implemented to augment the data generated by the modified lap joint test with full field surface displacement and strain measurements which allow for insight into the deformation processes present during a test. Both optical microscopy of impact ice samples along with ice replication techniques have been used to study the grain structure of the impact ice. This has led to a deeper understanding of the results from the modified lap joint method and how the structure of impact ice changes as it is accreted during an icing spray. The freezing process of impact ice generated by supercooled liquid water is not a volume conserving process, which leads to the presence of residual strains along the interface between ice and substrate. These strains have been observed using both a simplified flat geometry and a representative airfoil. The data gathered by these experimental adhesion methods and supporting measurements allows for a comprehensive understanding on the behavior of impact ice which will be critical to the development of future ice shedding models.

Ice Adhesion↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Impact Ice Adhesion at NASA Glenn: Current Experimental Methods and Supporting Measurements

When examining the literature on the adhesion strength of impact ice, there have been a wide range of methodologies tried to measure the required stresses to induce interfacial delamination. Utilizing the Icing Research Tunnel at the NASA Glenn Research Center to generate the impact ice required for this work, several different mechanical tests have been and are being developed to determine the stresses along the interface between ice and coupon. This set of tests includes the technical mature modified lap joint test which has been used to conduct ice adhesion studies through a wide sweep of icing conditions. To conduct in situ ice adhesion measurements inside of the Icing Research Tunnel, several new experiments are currently being developed to make ice adhesion measurements during and immediately after ice accretion. In addition to these experimental methods, several supporting measurement techniques have been developed to allow for a better understanding on the influence of icing cloud conditions on the mechanical behavior of impact ice. Digital image correlation has been successfully implemented to augment the data generated by the modified lap joint test with full field surface displacement and strain measurements which allow for insight into the deformation processes present during a test. Both optical microscopy of impact ice samples along with ice replication techniques have been used to study the grain structure of the impact ice. This has led to a deeper understanding of the results from the modified lap join method and how the structure of impact ice changes as it is accreted during an icing spray. The freezing process of impact ice generated by supercooled liquid water is not a volume conserving process, which leads to the presence of residual strains along the interface between ice and substrate. These strains have been observed using both a simplified flat geometry and a representative airfoil. The data gathered by these experimental adhesion methods and supporting measurements allows for a compressive understanding on the behavior of impact ice which will be critical to the development of future ice shedding models.

Ice Adhesion↗

NASA NTRS1992

Dynamic analysis of a pre-and-post ice impacted blade

The dynamic characteristics of an engine blade are evaluated under pre-and-post ice impact conditions using the NASA in-house computer code BLASIM. The ice impacts the leading edge of the blade causing severe local damage. The local structural response of the blade due to the ice impact is predicted via a transient response analysis by modeling only a local patch around the impact region. After ice impact, the global geometry of the blade is updated using deformations of the local patch and a free vibration analysis is performed. The effects of ice impact location, ice size and ice velocity on the blade mode shapes and natural frequencies are investigated. The results indicate that basic nature of the mode shapes remains unchanged after impact and that the maximum variation in natural frequencies occurs for the twisting mode of the blade.

Abumeri, G. H.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Dynamic analysis of a pre-and-post ice impacted blade

The dynamic characteristics of an engine blade are evaluated under pre-and-post ice impact conditions using the NASA in-house computer code BLASIM. The ice impacts the leading edge of the blade causing severe local damage. The local structural response of the blade due to the ice impact is predicted via a transient response analysis by modeling only a local patch around the impact region. After ice impact, the global geometry of the blade is updated using deformations of the local patch and a free vibration analysis is performed. The effects of ice impact location, size and ice velocity on the blade mode shapes and natural frequencies are investigated. The results indicate that basic nature of the mode shapes remains unchanged after impact and that the maximum variation in natural frequencies occurs for the twisting mode of the blade.

Abumeri, G. H.↗

NASA NTRS2021

An Investigation of the Grain Size and Adhesion Strength of High-Speed Impact Ice

Ice accumulation on aircraft from supercooled water droplets (impact icing) can increase drag and decrease lift, leading to a decrease in fuel efficiency and a potential for unsafe situations. Anti-icing materials and coatings are of high interest to prevent aircraft icing. Because no anti-icing material suitable for in-flight situations has been realized, icing models aim to predict the accumulation and shape of the ice to understand its effects. In both cases, understanding the physical mechanism behind ice adhesion and shedding is necessary. A recent literature review has shown that the apparent ice adhesion strength to any specific material varies over several orders of magnitude across studies and test methods. One of the reasons for this high variance is likely to be the varying microstructure of the ice used for different studies. Although the microstructure of impact ice has been studied in the past, those conditions were not relevant to that of in-flight aircraft icing. The microstructure of the ice formed will determine both its bulk and surface properties, yet it has been overlooked in the ice adhesion community. Here, we use optical microscopy to study the non-uniform ice crystal grain size in impact ice accreted in NASA Glenn Research Center’s Icing Research Tunnel at various icing conditions. Similar to other environmental conditions studied in the literature, we show an increase in grain size at larger distances from the growth interface; however, the data shows substantially larger grains than what was expected from the prior literature. Ice accrued at lower temperatures has a smaller grain size at all distances from the growth interface. No change in grain size was noticed when varying only the wind speed. A correlational analysis shows that smaller grain sizes at the growth interface corresponded to an increase in the apparent ice adhesion strength when the adhesive failure was interfacial, but not when the failure was cohesive. These results may explain the overall trend in the literature of increasing apparent adhesion strength with decreasing temperature. Incorporating microstructure trends for various environmental conditions in icing models may increase the certainty in predicting ice adhesion strength and shedding, and will provide a better basis for comparison between adhesive tests on ice produced in different facilities and at different storage times.

• Ice Fabric↗

NASA NTRS1992

Tensile properties of impact ices

A special test apparatus was developed to measure the tensile strength of impact ices perpendicular to the direction of growth. The apparatus consists of a split tube carefully machined to minimize the effect of the joint on impact ice strength. The tube is supported in the wind tunnel by two carefully aligned bearings. During accretion the tube is turned slowly in the icing cloud to form a uniform coating of ice on the split tube specimen. The two halves of the split tube are secured firmly by a longitudinal bolt to prevent relative motion between the two halves during ice accretion and handling. Tensile test strength results for a variety of icing conditions were obtained. Both glaze and rime ice conditions were investigated. In general, the tensile strength of impact ice was significantly less than refrigerator ice. Based on the limited data taken, the median strength of rime ice was less than glaze ice. However, the mean values were similar.

Chu, M. L.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Root damage analysis of aircraft engine blade subject to ice impact

The blade root response due to ice impact on an engine blade is simulated using the NASA in-house code BLASIM. The ice piece is modeled as an equivalent spherical object impacting on the leading edge of the blade and has the velocity opposite to that of the aircraft with direction parallel to the engine axis. The effect of ice impact is considered to be an impulse load on the blade with its amplitude computed based on the momentum transfer principle. The blade response due to the impact is carried out by modal superposition using the first three modes. The maximum dynamic stresses at the blade root are computed at the quarter cycle of the first natural frequency. A combined stress failure function based on modified distortion energy is used to study the spanwise bending damage response at the blade root. That damage function reaches maximum value for very low ice speeds and increases steeply with increases in engine speed.

Reddy, E. S.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Blasim: A computational tool to assess ice impact damage on engine blades

A portable computer called BLASIM was developed at NASA LeRC to assess ice impact damage on aircraft engine blades. In addition to ice impact analyses, the code also contains static, dynamic, resonance margin, and supersonic flutter analysis capabilities. Solid, hollow, superhybrid, and composite blades are supported. An optional preprocessor (input generator) was also developed to interactively generate input for BLASIM. The blade geometry can be defined using a series of airfoils at discrete input stations or by a finite element grid. The code employs a coarse, fixed finite element mesh containing triangular plate finite elements to minimize program execution time. Ice piece is modeled using an equivalent spherical objective that has a high velocity opposite that of the aircraft and parallel to the engine axis. For local impact damage assessment, the impact load is considered as a distributed force acting over a region around the impact point. The average radial strain of the finite elements along the leading edge is used as a measure of the local damage. To estimate damage at the blade root, the impact is treated as an impulse and a combined stress failure criteria is employed. Parametric studies of local and root ice impact damage, and post-impact dynamics are discussed for solid and composite blades.

Reddy, E. S.↗

NASA NTRS1993

BLASIM - A computational tool to assess ice impact damage on engine blades

A portable computer code called BLASIM is developed at NASA LeRC to assess the ice impact damage on aircraft engine blades. In addition to the ice impact analyses, the code is also capable of carrying out static, dynamic, resonance margin and flutter analyses. The blade can be solid, hollow, superhybrid or composite material. An optional preprocessor (input generator) is also developed to generate input to the code through interactive process. The blade geometry can be defined either by a series of airfoils at discrete input stations or by a finite element grid. The code employs a coarse fixed finite element mesh with triangular plate finite elements and has quick turnaround time. The ice piece is modeled as an equivalent spherical object and has the velocity opposite to that of the aircraft with direction parallel to the engine axis. For the local impact damage assessment, the impact force is considered as a distributed load acting over a region around the impact point and the average radial strain of the finite elements along the leading edge is taken as a measure of the local damage. To estimate the damage at the blade root, the impact is considered to be an impulse and a combined stress failure criteria is employed. Parametric studies for local and root ice impact damage, and post-impact dynamics are discussed for solid and composite blades.

Reddy, E. S.↗

NASA NTRS1987

Structural properties of impact ices accreted on aircraft structures

The structural properties of ice accretions formed on aircraft surfaces are studied. The overall objectives are to measure basic structural properties of impact ices and to develop finite element analytical procedures for use in the design of all deicing systems. The Icing Research Tunnel (IRT) was used to produce simulated natural ice accretion over a wide range of icing conditions. Two different test apparatus were used to measure each of the three basic mechanical properties: tensile, shear, and peeling. Data was obtained on both adhesive shear strength of impact ices and peeling forces for various icing conditions. The influences of various icing parameters such as tunnel air temperature and velocity, icing cloud drop size, material substrate, surface temperature at ice/material interface, and ice thickness were studied. A finite element analysis of the shear test apparatus was developed in order to gain more insight in the evaluation of the test data. A comparison with other investigators was made. The result shows that the adhesive shear strength of impact ice typically varies between 40 and 50 psi, with peak strength reaching 120 psi and is not dependent on the kind of substrate used, the thickness of accreted ice, and tunnel temperature below 4 C.

Scavuzzo, R. J.↗

NASA NTRS1991

Statistical structural analysis of rotor impact ice shedding

The statistical characteristics of impact ice shear strength are analyzed, with emphasis placed on the most probable shear strength and statistical distribution of an ice deposit. Several distribution types are considered: the Weibull, two-parameter Weibull, and exponential distributions, as well as the Gumbell distribution of the smallest extreme and the Gumbell distribution of the largest extreme. It is concluded that the Weibull distribution yields the best results; however, the expected life, shape parameter, and scale parameter should be determined separately for each case of varying wind speed and droplet size. The theoretical predictions of shear stresses in a specific rotating ice shape are compared, and it is noted that when the effects of lift are added to the theoretical model and the interference is calculated with a new mean and standard deviation, the probability of ice shed is computed as 36.64 pct.

Kellacky, C. J.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Structural tailoring of aircraft engine blade subject to ice impact constraints

Results are presented for the minimum weight design of SR2 unswept blade made of (titanium/graphite-epoxy/titanium) sub s fiber composite. The blade which is rotating at high RPM is subject to ice impact. The root chord length, blade thicknesses at five stations, and graphite-epoxy ply orientation are chosen as design variables. Design constraints are placed on the behavior variables: local leading edge strain and root damage parameter (combined stress failure criteria) as a function due to ice impact, maximum spanwise centrifugal stress at the root of the deformed blade due to local damage, first three natural frequencies, and resonance margin after impact. The method of feasible directions is employed to solve the inequality constrained minimization problem. The effect of ice speed and the ice impact location on the final design are discussed.

Reddy, E. S.↗

NASA NTRS1992

Structural tailoring of aircraft engine blade subject to ice impact constraints

In this paper, results are presented for the minimum weight design of SR2 unswept blade made of (Titanium/Graphite-Epoxy/Titanium)s fiber composite. The blade which is rotating at high RPM is subject to ice impact. The root chord length, blade thicknesses at five stations, and graphite-epoxy ply orientation are chosen as design variables. The design constraints are placed on the behavior variables: leading edge strain and root damage parameter due to ice impact, maximum post-impact bending stress at the root due to rotation, first three natural frequencies and resonance margin after impact. The method of feasible directions is employed to solve the inequality constrained minimization problem. The effect of ice speed and the ice impact location on the final design are discussed.

Reddy, E. S.↗