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Results for “Logic model checking”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 19 records
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Formal verification and validation of run-to-completion style state charts using Event-B

State chart notations with ‘run to completion’ semantics are popular with engineers for designing controllers that react to environment events with a sequence of state transitions but lack formal refinement and rigorous verification methods. State chart models are typically used to design complex control systems that respond to environmental triggers with a sequential process. The model is usually constructed at a concrete level and verified and validated using animation techniques relying on human judgement. Event-B, on the other hand, is based on refinement from an initial abstraction and is designed to make formal verification by automatic theorem provers feasible. Abstraction and formal verification provide greater assurance that critical (e.g. safety or security) properties are not violated by the control system. In this paper, we introduce a notion of refinement into a ‘run to completion’ state chart modelling notation and leverage Event-B’s tool support for theorem proving. We describe the difficulties in translating ‘run to completion’ semantics into Event-B refinements and suggest a solution. We illustrate our approach and show how models can be validated at different refinement levels using our scenario checker animation tools. We show how critical invariant properties can be verified by proof despite the reactive nature of the system and how behavioural aspects of the system can be verified by testing the expected reactions using a temporal logic, model checking approach. To verify liveness, we outline a proof that the run to completion is deadlock-free and converges to complete the run.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2015

Design and verification of distributed logic controllers with application of Petri nets

The paper deals with the designing and verification of distributed logic controllers. The control system is initially modelled with Petri nets and formally verified against structural and behavioral properties with the application of the temporal logic and model checking technique. After that it is decomposed into separate sequential automata that are working concurrently. Each of them is re-verified and if the validation is successful, the system can be finally implemented.

71 CLASSICAL AND QUANTUM MECHANICS, GENERAL PHYSIC↗
DOE OSTI2012

Quantifying Uncertainty in Epidemiological Models

Modern epidemiology has made use of a number of mathematical models, including ordinary differential equation (ODE) based models and agent based models (ABMs) to describe the dynamics of how a disease may spread within a population and enable the rational design of strategies for intervention that effectively contain the spread of the disease. Although such predictions are of fundamental importance in preventing the next global pandemic, there is a significant gap in trusting the outcomes/predictions solely based on such models. Hence, there is a need to develop approaches such that mathematical models can be calibrated against historical data. In addition, there is a need to develop rigorous uncertainty quantification approaches that can provide insights into when a model will fail and characterize the confidence in the (possibly multiple) model outcomes/predictions, when such retrospective analysis cannot be performed. In this paper, we outline an approach to develop uncertainty quantification approaches for epidemiological models using formal methods and model checking. By specifying the outcomes expected from a model in a suitable spatio-temporal logic, we use probabilistic model checking methods to quantify the probability with which the epidemiological model satisfies the specification. We argue that statistical model checking methods can solve the uncertainty quantification problem for complex epidemiological models.

model checking↗
DOE OSTI2017

Practical applications of model checking in the finnish nuclear industry - 281

Model checking is a powerful, formal, computer-assisted verification method that can be used to prove that a model of a (hardware or software) system fulfills stated properties. When used right, model checking can prove the correctness of instrumentation and control (I and C) system application logic, be it a software or a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) based design. The verified properties can also address unwanted functionality, making model checking a very effective method for analyzing spurious actuation. Despite the benefits, model checking is still not widely adopted in the verification of I and C systems, one exception being the Finnish nuclear industry. Since 2008, VTT has applied model checking in practical customer work related to the Olkiluoto 3 EPR, Loviisa 1 and 2 VVER-440, and Hanhikivi 1 AES-2006 nuclear power plants, on commission from either the regulator or the utilities. In this paper, we look at how the method has been used in each of these three projects. We also introduce a user-friendly, graphical modelling tool called MODCHK. We then present an overall view of the design issues detected during nine years of customer work, and one practical example. The 100% coverage means that the design errors that are found often relate to scenarios that are otherwise hard to account for (e.g., exact timing of events, or improper operator actions). (authors)

21 SPECIFIC NUCLEAR REACTORS AND ASSOCIATED PLANTS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Designing Secure and Resilient Cyber-Physical Systems Using Formal Models

This work-in-progress paper proposes a design methodology that addresses the complexity and heterogeneity of cyber-physical systems (CPS) while simultaneously proving resilient control logic and security properties. The design methodology involves a formal methods-based approach by translating the complex control logic and security properties of a water flow CPS into timed automata. Timed automata are a formal model that describes system behaviors and properties using mathematics-based logic languages with precision. Due to the semantics that are used in developing the formal models, verification techniques, such as theorem proving and model checking, are used to mathematically prove the specifications and security properties of the CPS. This work-in-progress paper aims to highlight the need for formalizing plant models by creating a timed automata of the physical portions of the water flow CPS. Extending the time automata with control logic, network security, and privacy control processes is investigated. The final model will be formally verified to prove the design specifications of the water flow CPS to ensure efficacy and security.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2017

Towards a Semantically-Enabled Control Strategy for Building Simulations: Integration of Semantic Technologies and Model Predictive Control

State-of-the-art building simulation control methods incorporate physical constraints into their mathematical models, but omit implicit constraints associated with policies of operation and dependency relationships among rules representing those constraints. To overcome these shortcomings, there is a recent trend in enabling the control strategies with inference-based rule checking capabilities. One solution is to exploit semantic web technologies in building simulation control. Such approaches provide the tools for semantic modeling of domains, and the ability to deduce new information based on the models through use of Description Logic (DL). In a step toward enabling this capability, this paper presents a cross-disciplinary data-driven control strategy for building energy management simulation that integrates semantic modeling and formal rule checking mechanisms into a Model Predictive Control (MPC) formulation. The results show that MPC provides superior levels of performance when initial conditions and inputs are derived from inference-based rules.

Delgoshaei, Parastoo↗
DOE OSTI2021

Applying Incremental, Inductive Model Checking to the Modal Mu Calculus

This work aims to demonstrate that an incremental inductive model checking algorithm built on top of Boolean satisfiability (SAT) solvers can be extended to support modal mu calculus (MMC) formulas. The resulting algorithm, called modal mu calculus model checking using myopic constraints (MC3), solves MMC model checking problems over Boolean labeled transition systems (LTSs). MMC subsumes simple invariance/reachability (as solved by the IC3 algorithm), linear temporal logic (LTL, as solved by the fair algorithm), computation tree logic (CTL, as solved by IICTL), and CTL* (which in turn subsumes LTL and CTL, but was not previously supported by any incremental inductive algorithm). The algorithm is implemented in a prototype solver, mc3.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2024

Digital Analytics, Causal Knowledge Acquisition and Reasoning for Technical Language Processing

Complex engineering systems such as nuclear power plants (NPPs) generate and collect large amounts of equipment reliability (ER) data elements that contain information on the status of components, assets, and systems. Some of this information is textual in form and can be found in documents such as incident reports (IRs) and work orders (WOs). Analyses of textual data in current NPPs-using natural language processing (NLP) methods-have been expanded over the last decade, and it is only recently that the true potential of such analyses has emerged. So far, applications of NLP methods have mostly been limited to classification and prediction, the goal being to identify the nature of the textual element (e.g., safety or non-safety related). Here, we target a more complex problem: automatically extracting knowledge from a textual element in order to assist system engineers in conducting system health assessments. Knowledge extraction is a very broad concept, and its definition may vary depending on the application context. Our methods are a blend of both rule-based and machine learning (ML) algorithms. For our purposes, knowledge extraction means identifying the systems or assets mentioned in a given textual element, as well as the type of event described (e.g., component failure or maintenance activity). In addition, we want to capture details such as measured quantities and the temporal/cause-effect relations between events. In this tool, we also demonstrate how textual data elements are preprocessed in order to handle typos, acronyms, and abbreviations. One main feature of these methods is that they are not based solely on data, but are in fact model-based. In other words, they also rely on MBSE models that are designed to capture-from a functional point of view-the architecture of the systems/assets under consideration. The main purpose of such models is to digitally emulate system engineers' knowledge of system and asset architecture and to identify dependencies among systems, assets, and components. Provided these models, analyses of textual and numeric ER data can be performed by first identifying the OPM model elements to which the ER data elements are referring. The relationships between ER data elements are then identified by checking for any temporal or logical dependencies.

Mandelli, Diego [Idaho National Laboratory (INL), ↗
DOE OSTI2014

LCMSNet v. 3.0

LCMSnet communicates with, controls and orchestrates devices for high pressure liquid chromatography. In developing cutting edge chromatographic methods it was apparent that components from different manufacturers were required. Autosamplers, valves, and pumps all had to be controlled and configured to run unattended and in the highest throughput possible. The power of LCMSnet is the ability so build methods in a simple step by step fashion and then the software uses a scheduling algorithm to run the devices as efficiently as possible without crashing critical functions. This latest iteration of the software allows for modeling of the valves and incorporates logic that will report if a fluid path is undesirable. LCMSnet has reduced method development time from days to minutes and allows the ability to check configurations before any valves or pumps are connected.

Source record↗
DOE OSTI2014

LCMSNet v. 3.0

LCMSnet communicates with, controls and orchestrates devices for high pressure liquid chromatography. In developing cutting edge chromatographic methods it was apparent that components from different manufacturers were required. Autosamplers, valves, and pumps all had to be controlled and configured to run unattended and in the highest throughput possible. The power of LCMSnet is the ability so build methods in a simple step by step fashion and then the software uses a scheduling algorithm to run the devices as efficiently as possible without crashing critical functions. This latest iteration of the software allows for modeling of the valves and incorporates logic that will report if a fluid path is undesirable. LCMSnet has reduced method development time from days to minutes and allows the ability to check configurations before any valves or pumps are connected.

Source record↗
DOE OSTI2022

Using the Criticality Accident Alarm System modeling capabilities in SCALE [Slides]

The following is a summary of advice for CAAS modeling in SCALE. Refer to the SCALE Criticality Safety and Radiation Shielding training slides or to the SCALE manual for exact syntax. Use a mesh for the fission source that is the most adequate for the problem to solve (coarse/fine). Don’t spend unnecessary resources; simplify the model if it does not impact the final results of interest. Be careful to deactivate secondary fissions in MAVRIC or the calculation may never end. Check that k eff and $\overline{\upsilon}$ calculated results are logical. Between KENO and MAVRIC, cross section libraries, materials, geometry, and mesh grid can be the same or different. Iterative calculations are usually complex problems that need variance reduction. It will be hard to find the best solving parameters in the first attempt; expert judgement is needed. Check each step separately. Use Fulcrum to visualize fission source, mesh source, and spatial/energy distributions to find potential errors or impactful imprecisions.

73 NUCLEAR PHYSICS AND RADIATION PHYSICS↗
DOE OSTI2011

Search for the Higgs Boson and Rare Standard Model Processes in the E T +B-Jets Signature at the Collider Detector at Fermilab

We study rare processes of the standard model of particle physics (SM) in events with missing transverse energy E T , no leptons, and two or three jets, of which at least one is identified as originating from a $b$-quark (E T +b-jets signature). We present a search for the SM Higgs boson produced in association with a $W$ or $Z$ boson when the Higgs decays into \bbbar. We consider the scenario where $Z \to \nu \nu$, or $W \to l \nu$ and the lepton escapes detection. This dissertation analyzes $7.8~\mbox{fb$^{-1}$}$ of data collected by the CDF~II experiment at Fermilab. For the first time, we analyze events with \emph{relaxed kinematic} requirements, yielding an increase of 30- 40\% in acceptance to the $WH/ZH$ signal. We collect events from three different triggers and parametrize the efficiency of their logical combination (OR) using a novel artificial neural network ($NN$) technique. To increase the sensitivity to the signal, we implement a $NN$ to remove the huge instrumental background. An additional $NN$ is used to discriminate the Higgs signal from the remaining background. We check our background modeling by comparing data against backgrounds in many control regions, and find good agreement. Observing no significant excess in the data, we place 95\% confidence level (C.L.) upper limits on the Higgs boson production cross section. For a mass of $115~\mbox{GeV/$c^2$}$ the expected (observed) limit is $2.9$ ($2.3$) times the standard model prediction. Compared to the last iteration of this analysis, this result improves the significance by 10\% throughout the $100-150~\mbox{GeV/$c^2$}$ mass range. This is one of the most sensitive at the Tevatron in this mass range. We cross-check the tools developed in this dissertation by measuring the cross-section of top pair, electroweak single top and diboson ($WZ+ZZ$) production.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Soft syndrome iterative decoding of quantum LDPC codes and hardware architectures

In practical quantum error correction implementations, the measurement of syndrome information is an unreliable step—typically modeled as a binary measurement outcome flipped with some probability. However, the measured syndrome is in fact a discretized value of the continuous voltage or current values obtained in the physical implementation of the syndrome extraction. In this paper, we use this “soft” or analog information to benefit iterative decoders for decoding quantum low-density parity-check (QLDPC) codes. Syndrome-based iterative belief propagation decoders are modified to utilize the soft syndrome to correct both data and syndrome errors simultaneously. We demonstrate the advantages of the proposed scheme not only in terms of comparison of thresholds and logical error rates for quasi-cyclic lifted-product QLDPC code families but also with faster convergence of iterative decoders. Additionally, we derive hardware (FPGA) architectures of these soft syndrome decoders and obtain similar performance in terms of error correction to the ideal models even with reduced precision in the soft information. The total latency of the hardware architectures is about 600 ns (for the QLDPC codes considered) in a 20 nm CMOS process FPGA device, and the area overhead is almost constant—less than 50% compared to min-sum decoders with noisy syndromes.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Next Generation System Analysis Model Recently Added Features and Future Plans - Abstract

The Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982, as amended (NWPA 1982), established the federal government’s responsibility to accept spent nuclear fuel (SNF) and high-level radioactive waste (HLW) from waste owners and generators for ultimate disposition. SNF generated by the current fleet of commercial nuclear reactors is being stored at the reactor sites in spent fuel pools (SFPs) and in dry independent spent fuel storage installations (ISFSIs). The US Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy (DOE-NE) is developing an Integrated Waste Management Program (IWMP) comprising a suite of options and supporting analyses to enable future informed choices. The IWMP is applying integrated waste management system architecture analysis, system engineering, and decision analysis principles to inform potential future decisions regarding potential nuclear waste management system architectures. Architecture analyses of the IWM system are being conducted to support the future deployment of a comprehensive system for managing nuclear waste that considers all major aspects of the back end of the nuclear fuel cycle (i.e., transportation, storage, and disposal). The Next Generation System Analysis Model (NGSAM) is an agent-based simulation software tool designed for the express purpose of modeling the IWM system. NGSAM imports data from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) Unified Database (e.g., historic assembly information, thermal profiles for assembly heat, at-reactor dry storage loadings) to ensure that the simulation initializes with a realistic representation of the state of commercial SNF in the United States. Recent major enhancements that have been implemented into NGSAM since NGSAM was last presented at the WM2019 conference include: • Tracking of railroad escort and buffer car acquisition. • Addition of heavy haul and barge routes for some sites, as well as support for user-defined inter-modal routes. • Updates to the logic that checks the thermal maps prior to package transport. • Addition of an allocation method that predicts when reactor sites will pack assemblies from their pools for dry storage and allocates packages to those reactor sites in the preceding periods, favoring direct transport packages and reducing the number of packages that reactor sites pack for dry storage at their ISFSIs. • Addition of reactor site family operational limits, which are used to limit the number of loads from the pool and from dry storage at a given reactor site per year. • Support has been added for multiple canister loading maps and packages having multiple compatible transportation overpacks. • Updates in the handling of non-commercial fuel, including a new database containing data to support the updates. • Support for repackaging at reactor sites. • Implementing additional output reports or modifying existing reports. • User edits can now be created and edited via the NGSAM website. • Ability to load packages for dry storage at ISF pools. • Same-type package blending at DOE sites. • Support for multi-mode transloading at reactor sites. These new features have improved NGSAM capabilities and/or improve the user experience with the model and will be discussed in more detail. The initial NGSAM requirements for advanced reactor fuels, reprocessing, treatment, and conditioning are preliminary and are described at a high level in this paper: analysts will provide more specific requirements to the NGSAM team in the future. Additionally, there are many data needs associated with modeling advanced reactors in NGSAM, but many of the data or plans are still in progress and/or yet to be fully defined. However, this document describes an initial exploration of the data relevant to this program. Advanced reactor data will likely require revision as concepts evolve and new considerations are made. This is a technical paper that does not take into account contractual limitations or obligations under the Standard Contract for Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel and/or High-Level Radioactive Waste (Standard Contract) (10 CFR Part 961). For example, under the provisions of the Standard Contract, spent nuclear fuel in multi-assembly canisters is not an acceptable waste form, absent a mutually agreed to contract amendment. To the extent discussions or recommendations in this paper conflict with the provisions of the Standard Contract, the Standard Contract governs the obligations of the parties, and this paper in no manner supersedes, overrides, or amends the Standard Contract. This paper reflects technical work which could support future decision making by DOE. No inferences should be drawn from this paper regarding future actions by DOE, which are limited both by the terms of the Standard Contract and Congressional appropriations for the Department to fulfill its obligations under the Nuclear Waste Policy Act including licensing and construction of a spent nuclear fuel repository.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Point containment algorithms for constructive solid geometry with unbounded primitives

Here, we present several algorithms for evaluating point containment in constructive solid geometry (CSG) trees with unbounded primitives. Three algorithms are presented based on postfix, prefix, and infix notations of the CSG binary expression tree. We show that prefix and infix notations enable short-circuiting logic, which reduces the number of primitives that must be checked during point containment. To evaluate the performance of the algorithms, each algorithm was implemented in the OpenMC Monte Carlo particle transport code, which relies on CSG to represent solid bodies through which subatomic particles travel. Two sets of tests were carried out. First, the execution time to generate a rasterized image of a 2D slice of three CSG models of varying complexity was measured. Use of both prefix and infix notations offered significant speedup over the postfix notation that has traditionally been used in particle transport codes, with infix resulting in a 6 x reduction in execution time relative to postfix for a model of a tokamak fusion device. We then measured the execution time of neutron transport simulations of the same three models using each of the algorithms. The results and performance improvements reveal the same trends as for the rasterization test, with a 5.52 x overall speedup using the infix notation relative to the original postfix notation in OpenMC for the tokamak model.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Next Generation System Analysis Model: Recently Added Features and Future Plans

To better enable informed decision-making regarding the back-end of the nuclear fuel cycle, the Integrated Waste Management System (IWMS) program within the U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Nuclear Energy (DOE-NE) has been sponsoring the development and application of system analysis tools capable of analyzing various system options for the management of spent nuclear fuel (SNF) and high-level radioactive waste (HLW).With these tools, IWMS architecture analyses are being conducted to support the future deployment of a comprehensive nuclear waste management system that considers all major back-end aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle (i.e., transportation, storage, and disposal). The Next Generation System Analysis Model (NGSAM) is an agent-based simulation software tool expressly designed to be capable of modeling features within various IWMS architectures. NGSAM imports data from Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL)’s unified database (e.g., historic assembly information, thermal profiles for assembly heat, and at-reactor dry storage loadings) to ensure that each simulation initializes with a realistic representation of the state of commercial SNF in the U.S. Recent major enhancements implemented into NGSAM in the period since NGSAM was last presented at the WM2019 conference include: • Tracking of railroad escort car acquisition and buffer car acquisition • The addition of heavy haul truck (HHT) and barge routes for some sites, as well as support for user-defined inter-modal routes • Updates to the logic that checks the transportation cask thermal limit maps prior to package transport • An allocation method that predicts when reactor sites would pack assemblies from their spent fuel pools for dry storage, and prioritizes shipments directly from the pools of those reactor sites in the preceding periods (before the predicted loadings to dry storage), thus reducing the number of casks loaded into dry storage at reactor sites • The addition of “reactor site family” operational limits to restrict the number of loads of SNF taken from the pool and from dry storage at a given reactor site each year • Added support for multiple canister loading map options and packages with multiple compatible transportation overpacks • Updates to the handling of non-commercial SNF, including a new database that contains data to support the updates • Updates to allow analysis of hypothetical scenarios which include repackaging at reactor sites, e.g., for possible comparative analysis with other scenarios • Implementation of additional output reports, or modification of existing ones • The ability to generate and implement user edits via the NGSAM website • The ability to model loading SNF from pool storage at an interim storage facility (ISF) into dry storage at the ISF • The ability to model consolidating SNF from different existing storage containers at a DOE site into the same DOE standard canister • The ability to model transferring SNF casks from one transportation mode to another, e.g., from HHT to rail, referred to as transloading. These new features have improved NGSAM capabilities and users’ experience with the model. Preliminary NGSAM requirements for modeling advanced reactor fuels, reprocessing, treatment, and conditioning were considered, and this paper describes them at a high level. Other nuclear fuel cycle system analysis tools developed under sponsorship of DOE-NE, like the VISION code developed at Idaho National Laboratory, might be better suited for initial high-level analysis of those technologies and advanced fuel cycles. As technologies are developed and system concepts evolve, NGSAM could provide value by providing more detailed modeling of transport, storage, and disposal of spent fuel and wastes from advanced reactors and advanced fuel cycles at the fuel element and waste container level.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2016

SU-G-TeP4-06: An Integrated Application for Radiation Therapy Treatment Plan Directives, Management, and Reporting

Purpose: With electronic medical records, patient information for the treatment planning process has become disseminated across multiple applications with limited quality control and many associated failure modes. We present the development of a single application with a centralized database to manage the planning process. Methods: The system was designed to replace current functionalities of (i) static directives representing the physician intent for the prescription and planning goals, localization information for delivery, and other information, (ii) planning objective reports, (iii) localization and image guidance documents and (iv) the official radiation therapy prescription in the medical record. Using the Eclipse Scripting Application Programming Interface, a plug-in script with an associated domain-specific SQL Server database was created to manage the information in (i)–(iv). The system’s user interface and database were designed by a team of physicians, clinical physicists, database experts, and software engineers to ensure usability and robustness for clinical use. Results: The resulting system has been fully integrated within the TPS via a custom script and database. Planning scenario templates, version control, approvals, and logic-based quality control allow this system to fully track and document the planning process as well as physician approval of tradeoffs while improving the consistency of the data. Multiple plans and prescriptions are supported along with non-traditional dose objectives and evaluation such as biologically corrected models, composite dose limits, and management of localization goals. User-specific custom views were developed for the attending physician review, physicist plan checks, treating therapists, and peer review in chart rounds. Conclusion: A method was developed to maintain cohesive information throughout the planning process within one integrated system by using a custom treatment planning management application that interfaces directly with the TPS. Future work includes quantifying the improvements in quality, safety and efficiency that are possible with the routine clinical use of this system. Supported in part by NIH-P01-CA-059827.

60 APPLIED LIFE SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Single-shot quantum error correction in intertwined toric codes

We construct a subsystem code in three dimensions that exhibits single-shot error correction in a user-friendly and transparent way. As this code is a subsystem version of coupled toric codes, we call it the intertwined toric code (ITC). Although previous codes share the property of single-shot error correction, the ITC is distinguished by its physically motivated origin, geometrically straightforward logical operators and errors, and a simple phase diagram. The code arises from three-dimensional (3D) stabilizer toric codes in a way that emphasizes the physical origin of the single-shot property. In particular, starting with two copies of the 3D toric code, we add check operators that provide for the confinement of pointlike excitations without condensing the loop excitations. Geometrically, the bare and dressed logical operators in the ITC derive from logical operators in the underlying toric codes, creating a clear relationship between errors and measurement outcomes. The syndromes of the ITC resemble the syndromes of the single-shot code by Kubica and Vasmer, allowing us to use their decoding schemes. We also extract the phase diagram corresponding to ITC and show that it contains the phases found in the Kubica-Vasmer code. Lastly, we suggest various connections to Walker-Wang models and measurement-based quantum computation.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗