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The Future of Mars Cartography
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Precision Mars Cartography
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MOLA: The New Approach for Mars Global Cartography
The MGS Orbiter is carrying the high-precision Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) which, when combined with telemetered latitude data, provides a tie between inertial space and Mars-fixed coordinates to an accuracy of 100 m in latitude/longitude and 10 m in radius (1 sigma), orders of magnitude more accurate than previous global geodetic/ cartographic control data. Over the 2 year MGS mission lifetime, it is expected that over 30,000 MOLA Global Cartographic Control Points will be produced to form the basis for new and re-derived map and geodetic products, key to the analysis of existing and evolving MGS data as well as future Mars exploration.
MOLA: The Future of Mars Global Cartography
The MGS Orbiter is carrying the high-precision Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) which, when combined with precision reconstructed orbital data and telemetered attitude data, provides a tie between inertial space and Mars-fixed coordinates to an accuracy of 100 m in latitude / longitude and 10 m in radius (1 sigma), orders of magnitude more accurate than previous global geodetic/ cartographic control data. Over the 2 year MGS mission lifetime, it is expected that over 30,000 MOLA Global Cartographic Control Points will be produced to form the basis for new and re-derived map and geodetic products, key to the analysis of existing and evolving MGS data as well as future Mars exploration. Additional information is contained in the original extended abstract.
Digital cartography of Mars
A medium-resolution Digital Image Model (DIM) of Mars is being compiled. A DIM is a mosaic of radiometrically corrected, photometrically modelled spacecraft images displaying accurate reflectance properties at uniform resolution, and geometrically tied to the best available control. The Mars medium-resolution DIM contains approximately 4700 Viking Orbiter image frames that were used to compile the recently completed 1:2,000,000-scale controlled photomosaic series of Mars. This DIM provides a planimetric control base to which all other Mars maps will be registered. A similar control base of topographic elevations (Digital Terrain Model, or DTM) is also being compiled. These products are scheduled for completion in 1989.
Cartographic Mapping of Mars Landing Sites: A Historical Perspective
Initial mapping of Mars began with the early Mariner 4, 6 and 7 flybys in the 1960's. Mariner 9 obtained the first global coverage of Mars in 1971. Viking Orbiters 1 and 2 added new and higher resolution global coverage. The US Geological Survey produced the first digital global cartographic map products in black and white and in color, the mosaicked digital image models (MDIMs). In 1989, the Phobos 88 mission added imaging as well as multispectral mapping of Mars in the equatorial region. The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) added to the black and white and color global coverage. The most important development for Mars cartography occurred on MGS with its global coverage of Mars using the Mars Observer Laser Altimeter (MOL A) producing precision ground control in latitude, longitude and radius. The next version of the MDIM was produced at 230 m spatial resolution using MOLA precision cartographic control. The Mars Odyssey mission THEMIS instrument has completed its global infrared mapping of Mars at 100 m spatial resolution. The Mars Express mission is completing its global coverage of Mars in stereo at 100 m spatial resolution or better. MGS, Odyssey and Mars Express continue to provide limited surface coverage at the 1 to 20 m resolution. Currently the new Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter is producing images at the 10's of cm level. All of these datasets provide a rich and historic perspective of Mars covering nearly five decades and allow global cartographic map products to be produced in visual and infrared at the 100 m level with specialized cartographic maps being produced for landing sites at the meter or sub-meter spatial resolution level. This work was produced at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology under contract to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NAS 7-7120.5d, within the NASA Mars Data Analysis Program and the MGS, Odyssey, Mars Express and MRO Participating Scientist Programs.
Polar Dunes Resolved by the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter Gridded Topography and Pulse Widths
The Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) polar data have been refined to the extent that many features poorly imaged by Viking Orbiters are now resolved in densely gridded altimetry. Individual linear polar dunes with spacings of 0.5 km or more can be seen as well as sparsely distributed and partially mantled dunes. The refined altimetry will enable measurements of the extent and possibly volume of the north polar ergs. MOLA pulse widths have been recalibrated using inflight data, and a robust algorithm applied to solve for the surface optical impulse response. It shows the surface root-mean-square (RMS) roughness at the 75-m-diameter MOLA footprint scale, together with a geological map. While the roughness is of vital interest for landing site safety studies, a variety of geomorphological studies may also be performed. Pulse widths corrected for regional slope clearly delineate the extent of the polar dunes. The MOLA PEDR profile data have now been re-released in their entirety (Version L). The final Mission Experiment Gridded Data Records (MEGDR's) are now provided at up to 128 pixels per degree globally. Densities as high as 512 pixels per degree are available in a polar stereographic projection. A large computational effort has been expended in improving the accuracy of the MOLA altimetry themselves, both in improved orbital modeling and in after-the-fact adjustment of tracks to improve their registration at crossovers. The current release adopts the IAU2000 rotation model and cartographic frame recommended by the Mars Cartography Working Group. Adoption of the current standard will allow registration of images and profiles globally with an uncertainty of less than 100 m. The MOLA detector is still operational and is currently collecting radiometric data at 1064 nm. Seasonal images of the reflectivity of the polar caps can be generated with a resolution of about 300 m per pixel.
Cartography and orbit determination using TV data from a Mars orbiting spacecraft
Mars surface cartography and orbit determination using TV data from Mars orbiting spacecraft
Planimetric Martian triangulations
Narrow-angle photographs, which have severe drawbacks for stereophotogrammetry, have advantages for simple plane triangulations. Rectified narrow-angle pictures corrected for map projection effects can be combined in the map plane in relatively accurate planimetric triangulations. Provided the strict precepts of least squares are not followed, these triangulations can incorporate considerable overdetermination without increase in the labor of solving the equations. These plane triangulations have been used successfully in the cartography of Mars and are illustrated here by a triangulation of the environs of the prime Martian landing site.
Geodesy and cartography
An overview of geodesy and cartography of Mars over the past century is presented. The modern exploration began with the Mariner 4, 6, and 7 flyby missions, followed by the Mariner 9 and Viking missions that mapped the entire surface of Mars. The primary modern changes to the coordinate system have led to improved measurements of the rotational period, the direction of the spin axis, and the size and shape of Mars. Planimetric mapping based on Mariner 9 pictures began with a 1:25-M-scale sheet and 30 1:5-M-scale sheets that covered the entire Martian surface. The quality of the Viking Orbiter pictures was greatly improved over Mariner 9 and led to the publication of 140 controlled photomosaic sheets at a scale of 1:2 M. Two digital data bases have been compiled for Mars - the digital image model and the digital terrain model.
A New Era in Geodesy and Cartography: Implications for Landing Site Operations
The Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA) global dataset has ushered in a new era for Mars local and global geodesy and cartography. These data include the global digital terrain model (Digital Terrain Model (DTM) radii), the global digital elevation model (Digital Elevation Model (DEM) elevation with respect to the geoid), and the higher spatial resolution individual MOLA ground tracks. Currently there are about 500,000,000 MOLA points and this number continues to grow as MOLA continues successful operations in orbit about Mars, the combined processing of radiometric X-band Doppler and ranging tracking of MGS together with millions of MOLA orbital crossover points has produced global geodetic and cartographic control having a spatial (latitude/longitude) accuracy of a few meters and a topographic accuracy of less than 1 meter. This means that the position of an individual MOLA point with respect to the center-of-mass of Mars is know to an absolute accuracy of a few meters. The positional accuracy of this point in inertial space over time is controlled by the spin rate uncertainty of Mars which is less than 1 km over 10 years that will be improved significantly with the next landed mission.
Mars
The present volume on Mars discusses visual, photographic and polarimetric telescopic observations, spacecraft exploration of Mars, the origin and thermal evolution of Mars, and the bulk composition, mineralogy, and internal structure of the planet. Attention is given to Martian gravity and topography, stress and tectonics on Mars, long-term orbital and spin dynamics of Mars, and Martian geodesy and cartography. Topics addressed include the physical volcanology of Mars, the canyon system on planet, Martian channels and valley networks, and ice in the Martian regolith. Also discussed are Martian aeolian processes, sediments, and features, polar deposits of Mars, dynamics of the Martian atmosphere, and the seasonal behavior of water on Mars.
Mobile LiDAR as A Tool for Terrestrial and Planetary Cave Exploration and Mapping
The Kinematic Navigation and Cartography Knapsack (KNaCK) team at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama is developing tools that enable ultra-high resolution terrain mapping and navigation using mobile LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) and SLAM (Simultaneous Localization and Mapping) algorithms in fully GPS-denied and unilluminated environments. The backpack mounted LiDAR instrument under development by our team demonstrates the potential of mobile SLAM LiDAR for use in challenging lunar and planetary surface environments as well as for lunar, planetary, and terrestrial cave exploration, study, and utilization.