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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Machine Learning-Based Anomaly Detection for PMT Data Quality Monitoring in the SBN and DUNE

Maintaining high-quality detector data is essential for achieving the scientific objectives of the Short-Baseline Neutrino (SBN) Program at Fermilab. Current data quality monitoring (DQM) procedures rely primarily on threshold-based metrics and manual inspection of detector monitoring plots, making the detection of subtle or gradually developing anomalies both time-consuming and dependent on expert interpretation. This project developed and evaluated a machine-learning workflow for automatically identifying anomalous photomultiplier tube (PMT) channels in the Short-Baseline Near Detector (SBND) using optical-hit amplitude data. A Python-based analysis program was developed to process ROOT files, extract statistical features describing individual PMT amplitude distributions, and generate feature vectors for anomaly detection. These features were used to train an Isolation Forest model using data representing normal detector operation. The trained model was subsequently applied to independent detector runs to identify channels exhibiting statistically unusual behavior relative to the learned reference response. To support expert interpretation, the workflow generated complementary diagnostic products, including anomaly score distributions, normalized amplitude comparisons, decision-tree visualizations, and principal component analysis (PCA) projections. This project demonstrated the feasibility of integrating unsupervised machine learning into detector data-quality monitoring and developed a complete workflow for automated PMT performance assessment to aid expert-driven review. Beyond its technical contributions, the VFP appointment fostered a research collaboration between Aurora University and Fermilab and provided direct workforce development benefits by training the visiting faculty member in detector-scale machine-learning methods that are now being incorporated into undergraduate coursework and research. The methodology developed here provides a foundation for future applications to ProtoDUNE and other liquid argon time projection chamber (LArTPC) detectors, contributing to ongoing efforts to improve detector reliability, reduce manual monitoring requirements, and enable scalable data quality monitoring for future large-scale neutrino experiments, including the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE).

Colón Santana, Juan A. [Unlisted, US, IL]↗
DOE OSTI2025

PMT calibration for the JSNS^2-II far detector with an embedded LED system

The JSNS^2-II (the second phase of JSNS^2, J-PARC Sterile Neutrino Search at J-PARC Spallation Neutron Source) is an experiment aimed at searching for sterile neutrinos. Here, this experiment has entered its second phase, employing two liquid scintillator detectors located at near and far positions from the neutrino source. Recently, the far detector of the experiment has been completed and is currently in the calibration phase. The following properties of all functioning Photo-Multiplier-Tubes (PMTs) to detect the neutrino events in the far detector have been calibrated: PMT gain, its dependence of supplied High Voltage (HV), Peak-to-Valley (PV), and signal timing. This paper presents a detailed description of the calibration process utilizing the LED system. The LED system of the far detector uses two Ultra-Violet (UV) LEDs, which are effective in calibrating all of the PMTs at once. The UV light is converted into the visible light wavelengths inside liquid scintillator via the wavelength shifters, providing pseudo-isotropic light. To achieve a good energy resolution for physics events, a relative gain adjustment of up to 10% is required for all functioning PMTs. This will be achieved using the HV curves measured and the results of the LED calibration. The Peak-to-Valley (PV) ratio values, which distinguish the single photo-electron signal from the pedestal, are similar to those from the production company. Additionally, the precision of the PMT signal timing is measured to be 2.1 ns. This meets the event reconstruction requirement of 10 ns.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Analysis and Validation of PMT s Waveforms in ICARUS LArTPC Using Monte Carlo Simulations

ICARUS (Imaging Cosmic and Rare Underground Signals) serves as the Far Detector in the Short Baseline Neutrino (SBN) program at Fermilab, playing a central role in investigating the potential existence of sterile neutrinos in the eV squared mass range. The detector consists of two large Liquid Argon Time Projection Chambers (LArTPCs) with a total capacity of 760 tons of liquid Argon. A key component of the system is its array of 360 Photo-Multiplier Tubes (PMTs), which detect the scintillation light produced by charged particles in liquid Argon; the fast scintillation signal enables accurate event timing, triggering, and reconstruction. Together with the TPC and CRT systems, the PMTs ensure precise interaction time measurements, which are crucial for distinguishing neutrino interactions from cosmic-ray backgrounds. ICARUS uses Hamamatsu R5912-MOD PMTs, optimized for cryogenic temperatures, with high quantum efficiency, excellent timing resolution, low dark current (around 10 nA at 1500 V), and broad spectral sensitivity (300–650 nm). These characteristics are crucial for the efficient detection of scintillation light. Analyzing the waveforms of PMT signals allows for a detailed comparison between experimental data and Monte Carlo simulations. This analysis is fundamental for improving the accuracy of neutrino event reconstruction, enhancing detector calibration, and optimizing the detector's performance for current and future operations.

Brio, V. [Catania U.] (ORCID:0009000088807391)↗
DOE OSTI2024

Optically multiplexed neutron time-of-flight technique for inertial confinement fusion

Neutron time-of-flight (nTOF) detectors are crucial in diagnosing the performance of inertial confinement fusion (ICF) experiments, which implode targets of deuterium–tritium fuel to achieve thermonuclear conditions. These detectors utilize the fusion neutron energy spectrum to extract key measurements, including the hotspot ion temperature and fuel areal density. Previous work [Danly et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 94, 043502 (2023)] has demonstrated adding 1D spatial resolution to an nTOF-like detector using a neutron aperture and streak camera to measure the ion temperature profile of an ICF implosion. By contrast, the study presented herein explores modifying the 1D detector to use a fast photomultiplier tube (PMT) to validate the design of a 2D spatially resolved instrument based on reconstruction from 1D profiles. The modification would collect time-of-flight traces from separate scintillators in an imaging array with one PMT using optical fibers of varying lengths to time-multiplex the signals. This technique has been demonstrated in ride-along experiments on the OMEGA laser with 20 fiber-coupled scintillator channels connected to a Photek PMT210. Results provide constraints on the fiber lengths and PMT gating requirements to promote pulse fidelity throughout all channels. Calibration of the detector to fixed nTOFs can provide a preliminary estimate of the instrument response function (IRF), although measurement of the IRF is currently under way. These results suggest that nTOF signals can potentially be time-multiplexed with fibers so long as the design is strategic to mitigate signal-to-noise reduction, modal dispersion, and charge build-up in the PMT, which has implications beyond ion temperature imaging.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

Inferring fusion nuclear burnwidths with low gain photomultiplier impulse response functions

When an inertial confinement fusion implosion is compressed, it maintains thermonuclear density and temperatures for a very short time scale, about 100 ps. The Gamma Reaction History diagnostic measures the time evolution of the fusion burn, but its temporal resolution is limited by the use of a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to amplify the photon signal. Multichannel plate-based PMTs have a fast (~120 ps) full-width at half-max impulse response function (IRF), but the time scale is similar to the incoming physics signal. An analysis routine is used to remove the effect of the PMT IRF and infer the incident fusion burnwidth. With the National Ignition Facility achieving ignition and creating much brighter signals, the PMTs are run at gains three orders of magnitude lower than nominal operation. Calibration at these settings shows the PMT IRFs get ~15% wider. Taking the gain-dependent IRF can affect the inferred nuclear burnwidths by up to ~15%.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

A new neutron time-of-flight detector for yield and ion-temperature measurements in DT implosions on OMEGA

A new neutron time-of-flight (nTOF) detector for yield and ion-temperature measurements in deuterium–tritium (DT) implosions was designed, installed, and calibrated on the OMEGA Laser System. This detector was installed at θ = 46.8° from the vertical and φ = 84.9°, previously a region without other detectors, in order to decrease the uncertainty of low-mode asymmetry measurements by six other nTOF detectors. The new nTOF detector uses the “PMT only” concept [Glebov et al., Rev. Sci. Instrum. 92, 013509 (2021)] and consists of a Photek photomultiplier tube (PMT)-110 in a thin aluminum housing. There is no lead shielding in front of the PMT to allow measurements of the x-ray instrument response function of the detector. The detector is installed in the OMEGA H2-port line of sight at 9.3 m from the target chamber center in the OMEGA Target Bay and is called the H2 nTOF detector. The H2 nTOF measures DT yields in the 1 × 10 13 to 3 × 10 14 range and ion temperatures from 2 to 12 keV. H2 nTOF reduced the hotspot flow uncertainty in the z-direction from ±10 to ±8 km/s, and the uncertainty in the anisotropic flow axis from σ θ = ±26° to ±13° and σ φ = ±25° to ±21°. Here, the design details, performance, and calibration results of the H2 nTOF detector in DT implosions on OMEGA will be presented.

Laser fusion↗
DOE OSTI2026

Physics potential of the IceCube Upgrade for atmospheric neutrino oscillations

The IceCube Upgrade is an extension of the existing IceCube Neutrino Observatory and will be deployed in the 2025–2026 austral summer. It will significantly improve the sensitivity of the detector to atmospheric neutrino oscillations. The existing 86-string IceCube array contains a dense in-fill known as DeepCore which is optimized to measure neutrinos with energies down to a few GeV. The IceCube Upgrade will consist of seven new densely instrumented strings placed within the DeepCore volume to further enhance the performance in the GeV energy range. The additional strings will feature new optical modules, each containing multiple photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), in contrast to the existing modules that each contain a single PMT. This will more than triple the number of PMT channels with respect to the current IceCube configuration, allowing for improved detection efficiency and reconstruction performance at GeV energies. We describe necessary updates to simulation, event selection, and reconstruction to accommodate the higher data rates observed by the upgraded detector and the addition of multi-PMT modules. We determine the expected sensitivity of the IceCube Upgrade to the atmospheric neutrino oscillation parameters sin 2 ⁡𝜃 23 and Δ⁢𝑚$^{2}_{32}$, the appearance of tau neutrinos and the neutrino mass ordering. The IceCube Upgrade will provide neutrino oscillation measurements that are of similar precision to those from accelerator experiments, while providing complementarity by probing higher energies and longer baselines, and with different sources of systematic uncertainties.

artificial neural networks↗
DOE OSTI2024

Beam Loss Assessment Through Use of Photomultiplier Tubes

The first machine in the Fermilab Accelerator chain, the Linac, delivers a 400 MeV proton beam. The first portion of the Fermilab Linac, the Drift Tube Linac, lacks the degree of instrumentation necessary for beam tuning. To compensate for this, photomultiplier tube (PMT s) based loss monitors were installed on either side of the first two drift tube tanks, but are not yet operational. One of the main goals in this is to make PMT's operational beam loss monitors for tuning. Noise reduction and peak finding on the PMT data is a requirement for this. A method for noise reduction and peak finding has been developed and implemented to produce a consistent and stable output. Future work includes integration with ACNET to automate input and output of data for analysis of beam loss.

Waggoner, Alexander↗
DOE OSTI2026

Performance and Stability Characterization of the ICARUS Light Detection System

The ICARUS detector, a key component of the Short Baseline Neutrino (SBN) Program at Fermilab, consists of two identical T300 modules filled with liquid argon. It is equipped with a Light Detection System (LDS) based on 360 8-inch Hamamatsu R5912-MOD photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) arranged behind the wire planes to collect Vacuum Ultraviolet (VUV, $\sim$ 128 nm) scintillation light. Operating under cryogenic conditions ( $\sim$ 87 K), the LDS is essential for determining the event start time (t0) with nanosecond precision for beam spill synchronization, improving longitudinal spatial resolution, and contributing to the event trigger and cosmic-ray mitigation. The performance of the LDS was investigated addressing both hardware and data analysis aspects. Following a progressive degradation in PMT gain observed during operations at FNAL, systematic gain measurements were first carried out from room temperature down to low temperatures. The results show stable performance at room temperature but a significant, irreversible reduction in gain at low temperatures. Based on these findings, a series of mitigation strategies were implemented in the ICARUS detector to preserve PMT performance and ensure reliable cryogenic operation. Currently, ongoing waveform analysis of the PMT signals is being performed to characterize signal shape, charge integration, and timing properties, aiming to refine and improve the agreement between experimental data and Monte Carlo simulations.

Saia, Clara [U. Catania (main); INAF, Catania; Cat↗
DOE OSTI2026

Optimization of the light detection system of the ICARUS detector

The ICARUS detector, a key component of the Short Baseline Neutrino (SBN) Program at Fermi National Acelerator Laboratory (FNAL), is a 600-ton Liquid Argon Time Projection Chamber (LArTPC) equipped with a Light Detection System (LDS) that uses 360 Hamamatsu R5912-MOD 8-inch photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), specifically designed to operate under cryogenic conditions ($\sim 87 \ K$). These PMTs feed the trigger signal to the readout, improve the spatial and timing resolution of the events, and contribute to cosmic rays mitigation. During operation at FNAL, a progressive degradation in the PMT gain was observed. We developed an experimental setup to investigate the temperature dependence of PMT performance. Gain measurements were carried out from room temperature to $-70 ^\circ C$ using an environmental chamber. The results show that, while the PMTs exhibit stable performance at room temperature, a significant and irreversible reduction in gain emerges at lower temperatures. Al though $-70 ^\circ C$ remains above the liquid argon temperatures, the trend clearly reveals a gain-sensitive degradation mechanism. A simplified physical model was developed to reproduce and interpret the observed behavior. Based on these findings, a series of mitigation strategies were implemented in the ICARUS detector to preserve PMT performance and ensure reliable operation under cryogenic conditions.

Saia, C. [Catania Astrophys. Observ.]↗
DOE OSTI2026

Qualifying LaBr3:Ce+Sr detector performance for the Mu2e experiment at Fermilab Using the ELBE Accelerator

A LaBr3:Ce+Sr detector will be used to measure the stopped muon captures at the Mu2e experiment at Fermilab. It has been benchmarked in a test beam experiment performed at the ELBE electron accelerator located at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Germany. ELBE’s pulsed bremsstrahlung beam line was set to deliver an average γ -ray energy of between 4–5 MeV. The detector response was mapped to match Mu2e beam conditions, including rates up to 1 Mcps, energy flux, and time structure. A radioactive calibration source was used to mimic the characteristic 1808.7 keV γ -ray, emitted during the atomic muon nuclear capture in the Mu2e aluminum stopping target. The detector energy resolution was measured as a function of the average energy flux: up to 1 TeV/s for 0.34 s, the steady-operation beam-on time and up to 4 TeV/s for 5 ms to get a conservative estimate of the effect of high intensity Mu2e beam fluctuations. The PMT gain variation as a function of the beam spill length and average intensity has been parametrized and corrected for. When a PMT gain correction corresponding to the average beam-spill intensity is applied, the residual effect of beam intensity fluctuations around the average degrades the energy resolution, σ E γ /E γ , at 1808.7 keV from 0.66% to 0.83%.

Huang, Shihua [Purdue U., West Lafayette]↗
DOE OSTI2025

Anode sensitivity calibration of photomultiplier tubes used as a readout of the ELOSS detector

We present and discuss the methodology and results for an anode sensitivity calibration of Photomultiplier Tubes (PMTs) that serve as the optical readout of the Energy Loss Optical Scintillation System (ELOSS). The ELOSS detector, under development at the Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB), is a gaseous Xe scintillation-based detector designed to identify the atomic number (Z) of nuclear reaction fragments by energy-loss measurement. Variation in the anode sensitivity from tube to tube of commercially available PMTs limits ELOSS from reaching its ultimate Z resolution. A methodical approach to calibrating PMT anode sensitivities to a single target value by systematic PMT gain corrections is presented. Although the calibration process is discussed in terms of its impact on ELOSS performance, the presented method is applicable to any optical detector system composed of a large number of PMTs needing anode sensitivity calibration.

Instrumentation for heavy-ion accelerators↗
DOE OSTI2025

Auger@TA: In-situ Cross-Calibration of the World's Largest Cosmic Ray Observatories

The Pierre Auger Observatory (Auger) and the Telescope Array (TA) are the world's two largest ultra-high-energy cosmic ray (UHECR) observatories. They operate in the Southern and Northern hemispheres, respectively, at similar latitudes but with distinct surface detector (SD) designs. A significant challenge in studying UHECR physics across the full sky is the apparent discrepancy in flux measurements between the two experiments. This discrepancy could arise from astrophysical differences and/or systematic effects related to their detector designs and sensitivities to extensive air shower components. To address this, the Auger@TA working group aims to cross-calibrate the two observatories with a self-triggering micro-Auger array within the TA array. This micro-array consists of eight Auger Surface Detector (SD) stations equipped with Water Cherenkov Detectors (WCDs) and AugerPrime Surface Scintillator Detectors. Seven SD stations, configured with a centered-1-PMT design, are arranged in a hexagonal pattern with one station in the center, with 1.5 km spacing, mirroring the Auger layout. The eighth station, which features a standard 3-PMT Auger station, is located in conjunction with a TA detector at the center of the hexagon, forming a triplet for high-statistics and low-uncertainty cross-calibration. A custom communication system that uses readily available components enables seamless communication between stations and remote access to each station through a central computer. The micro-array is now fully deployed, and initial data-taking is about to start. This presentation will detail the instrumentation, communication systems, central data acquisition system, expected performance of the micro-array, and preliminary results as appropriate.

Mocellin, Adriel G.B. [Colorado School of Mines]↗
DOE OSTI2026

Neutrino beam bunch structure reconstruction with precision timing in the ICARUS liquid argon time projection chamber

The ICARUS detector has been operating smoothly since 2021 as the far detector in the Short Baseline Neutrino (SBN) program at Fermilab, collecting neutrino interactions from both the Booster Neutrino Beam (BNB) and off-axis from the Neutrinos at the Main Injector (NuMI) beam. Analysis of neutrino interactions in ICARUS requires mitigation of substantial cosmogenic backgrounds. This is achieved by using an external Cosmic Ray Tagger (CRT) and a Photomultiplier Tube (PMT) system embedded in the liquid argon. The intrinsic neutrino beam bunch structure, inherited time structure from the Radio Frequency (RF) system used to accelerate the protons, can be resolved at the ICARUS detector using precise timing information. Located at shallow depth, ICARUS is exposed to a high flux of cosmic rays that can be mistaken for neutrino interactions. To mitigate this background, the CRT and a 3-meter-thick concrete overburden were installed. To better model backgrounds, ICARUS makes use of an overlay technique where simulated neutrino events are superimposed on detector beam-off data. PMTs installed within a Time Projection Chamber detect argon scintillation light emitted by high energy charged particles passing through the chamber and provide the event timing of neutrino interactions. The nanosecond-level beam bunch structure is reconstructed with the PMT system and can be used to further understand backgrounds and enhance neutrino physics capabilities. In this thesis, I will discuss background mitigation techniques using precision timing and present a novel technique to select neutrino events from our unbiased data stream using the beam bunch structure.

Heggestuen, Anna [Colorado State U.] (ORCID:000000↗
DOE OSTI2024

The data acquisition system of the LZ dark matter detector: FADR

The Data Acquisition System (DAQ) for the LUX-ZEPLIN (LZ) dark matter detector is described. The signals from 745 PMTs, distributed across three subsystems, are sampled with 100-MHz 32-channel digitizers (DDC-32s). A basic waveform analysis is carried out on the on-board Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) to extract information about the observed scintillation and electroluminescence signals. This information is used to determine if the digitized waveforms should be preserved for offline analysis. The system is designed around the Kintex-7 FPGA. In addition to digitizing the PMT signals and providing basic event selection in real time, the flexibility provided by the use of FPGAs allows us to monitor the performance of the detector and the DAQ in parallel to normal data acquisition. Furthermore, the hardware and software/firmware of this FPGA-based Architecture for Data acquisition and Realtime monitoring (FADR) are discussed and performance measurements are described.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2024

Gain stability of Hamamatsu R5912-MOD photomultipliers at low temperature

The Photon Detection System (PDS) is a crucial component of the ICARUS detector in the Short Baseline Neutrino (SBN) Program at Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (FNAL). It consists of 360 PhotoMultiplier Tubes (PMTs) 8” Hamamatsu R5912-MOD and, since June 2020, it has been operating at the liquid Argon cryogenic temperature. During these years, the PMTs have shown gain losses as an aging effect. Using a climatic chamber at the INFN Sezione di Catania, we confirmed a stable gain for a single PMT 8” Hamamatsu R5912-MOD when operated at room temperature, and a persistent gain loss at temperatures around -70 °C, although this temperature is rather higher than that of the liquid Argon.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗