Search NASA⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search NASA

Results for “Sandwich structures”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 19 records
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Infusible thermoplastic resin based sandwich structures for wind blade applications and the influence of scrim on facesheet to core interface debonding

Infusible thermoplastic Elium® family of resins from Arkema have garnered much attention in recent years as a possible replacement for thermoset resins in laminate and sandwich composite manufacturing for wind blade applications due to its ease of recyclability and the ability to utilize existing manufacturing processes without imposing complicated variations. However, physical and mechanical properties of the proposed Elium® based thermoplastic composites must be comparable to existing epoxy (thermoset) based composites using manufacturing processes relevant for large wind turbine blades. A 13-meter-long demonstration blade was manufactured for that purpose and sandwich samples were obtained from that project for a detailed study. This paper details three-point flexural properties of unidirectional E-glass fiber reinforced acrylic and epoxy based sandwich panels with identical balsa wood core materials. In addition, to evaluate the relative merit considering debond failure mode, the interfacial critical strain energy release rate, predominantly in mode-1, was compared via single cantilever beam testing. In sandwich composites constructed with balsa wood core material, resin uptake by the balsa core is traditionally impeded via the insertion of a scrim material at the facesheet to core interface. Results revealed that inclusion of scrim mesh layer at the facesheet to core interface reduced flexural properties and strain energy release rates in panels infused with acrylic resin but did not significantly reduce these properties in epoxy infused facesheets.

Engineering↗
DOE OSTI2025

Mechanical Toughening of Two-Dimensional Covalent Organic Frameworks Enabled by Graphene-Based Sandwich-Structured Nanocomposites

Low resistance to fracture in two-dimensional covalent organic frameworks (2D COFs) limits their practical applications, especially in mechanically demanding fields, such as flexible electronics and sensing devices. We address this critical limitation by fabricating a sandwich-structured nanocomposite consisting of graphene layers sandwiched between 2D COF layers (2D COFs/graphene/2D COFs) via chemical vapor deposition. Here, our sandwich-structured nanocomposites exhibit a remarkable improvement in modulus E, fracture toughness K IC , and critical energy release rate G C compared to pure 2D COFs. This enhancement is likely due to the graphene layers as the backbone of the sandwich structure effectively carrying and redistributing mechanical stress within the nanocomposite. Our findings demonstrate that a sandwich structure can improve the mechanical robustness of a 2D COF so that it can preserve the functionality and mechanical integrity for applications in stretchable electronics.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Characterization of micro-sandwich structures via direct ink writing epoxy based cores

Sandwich structured (SS) composites demonstrate considerable flexural stiffness and high strength-to-weight ratios and can be tailored as functional materials. Historically they have been constrained to specific material types and geometry due to limitations in manufacturing methods. However, employing additive manufacturing (AM), specifically direct ink writing (DIW), can provide an alternative method for making SS composites with complex and controllable micro and mesostructures with multifunctionality targeted at desired mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties. DIW, an extrusion-based AM technique, uses a viscous and thixotropic ink with desired components that, once printed, is cured to obtain the final complex net shape parts. In this paper, a novel hybrid AM technique is employed to manufacture SS composite materials containing bisphenol A-based epoxy core and carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) face sheets that are fabricated via DIW and vacuum infusion process (VIP), respectfully. We demonstrate that the fabrication of these SS composites can be tailored from a thermosetting material, from which additives and/or various lattice structures can be manufactured to achieve enhanced and desirable mechanical integrity with functional properties. Surface topology and mechanical testing techniques are used to characterize the fabricated hybrid SS composites to study and assess mechanical stability. A rheo-kinetic cure model was developed for the core material to allow for additive manufacturing process requirements while ensuring complete cross-linking for the thermoset-based core material. Because of the ability to obtain relatively small core-thickness and controlled architecture, this method now allows for fabricating layered micro-sandwich structures for realizing further light-weighting in relevant applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

The combined effect of temperature and seawater on the compression properties of carbon fiber vinyl ester composites for sandwich structures

For naval applications, composite sandwich structures are of significant interest, and are often manufactured using thin (2 to 4 mm) composite facings made from carbon or glass fiber reinforcement, attached to a thick (25 to 50 mm) section of PVC cellular foam or balsa wood-based core materials using a suitable polymeric resin. In the present study, we focus on the hygrothermal effect on the fiber-dominated compression properties of carbon fiber reinforced vinyl ester resin based polymeric composite (CF/VE), used as “skin” for a polymeric composite sandwich material. Hygrothermal conditioning is achieved by saturating samples in simulated seawater at 40°C. Compression properties are evaluated for coupons extracted along warp and fill undergoing- no conditioning, conditioning till saturation (up to 6 months), and long-term conditioning (2 years). Sea-water saturation yields in up to 12% drop in compression strength with a further 3–4% drop resulting from long-term conditioning. No statistically significant modulus degradation is noticed due to short or long-term hygrothermal exposure. The failure mechanism of the warp extracted coupon, which fails in a splitting failure mode originating due to the delamination between the 0/90 interface, or the fill extracted coupon, which fails due to the instability caused by tow micro-buckling, remains unchanged due to combined exposure (short or long-term) of seawater and temperature. The loss in strength is attributed to the degradation of the fiber-matrix interface, which is validated via conducting single fiber push-in tests with a nominal diameter of 7 micron for conditioned and unconditioned coupons.

Engineering↗
DOE OSTI2023

Double-Atom Catalysts Featuring Inverse Sandwich Structure for CO 2 Reduction Reaction: A Synergetic First-Principles and Machine Learning Investigation

Electrocatalytic CO 2 reduction reactions (CO 2 RR) based on scalable and highly efficient catalysis provide an attractive strategy for reducing CO 2 emissions. Here in this work, we combined first-principles density functional theory (DFT) and machine learning (ML) to comprehensively explore the potential of double-atom catalysts (DACs) featuring an inverse sandwich structure anchored on defective graphene (gra) to catalyze CO 2 RR to generate C 1 products. We started with five homonuclear M 2 ⊥gra (M = Co, Ni, Rh, Ir, and Pt), followed by 127 heteronuclear MM'⊥gra (M = Co, Ni, Rh, Ir, and Pt, M' = Sc–Au). Stable DACs were screened by evaluating their binding energy, formation energy, and dissolution potential of metal atoms, as well as conducting first-principles molecular dynamics simulations with and without solvent water molecules. Based on DFT calculations, Rh 2 ⊥gra DAC was found to outperform the other four homonuclear DACs and the Rh-based single- and double-atom catalysts of noninverse sandwich structures. Out of the 127 heteronuclear DACs, 14 were found to be stable and have good catalytic performance. An ML approach was adopted to correlate key factors with the activity and stability of the DACs, including the sum of radii of metal and ligand atoms (d M–M' , d M–C , and d M'–C ), the sum and difference of electronegativity of two metal atoms (P M + P M' , P M – P M '), the sum and difference of first ionization energy of two metal atoms (I M + I M' , I M – I M '), the sum and difference of electron affinity of two metal atoms (A M + A M' , A M – A M '), and the number of d-electrons of the two metal atoms (Nd). The obtained ML models were further used to predict 154 potential electrocatalysts out of 784 possible DACs featuring the same inverse sandwich configuration. Overall, this work not only identified promising CO 2 RR DACs featuring the reported inverse sandwich structure but also provided insights into key atomic characteristics associated with high CO 2 RR activity.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗
DOE OSTI2021

Sandwich-Structured Photothermal Wood for Durable Moisture Harvesting and Pumping

Moisture capture coupled with photothermal regeneration provides an alternative and sustainable way to acquire fresh water. Composite moisture absorbents based on hygroscopic salts are environmentally friendly, economically feasible, and of high efficiency but suffer from the unavoidable desiccant leakage during absorption and evaporation-induced salt accumulation on material surfaces during desorption. Additionally, in this study, we develop a superhydrophobic–hydrophilic–hydrophobic photothermal wood embedded with CaCl 2 to promote the durability of the absorbents. The sandwich structure serves as a liquid/vapor gate allowing vapor transport but forbidding liquid permeation, enabling the condensation and evaporation within the wood. Beyond moisture harvesting, the sandwich-structured photothermal wood exhibits potential in indoor dehumidification by pumping the moisture through an absorption–desorption cycle.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Sandwich-structured paper composite with water and oil resistance for food packaging and tableware applications

The growing environmental challenges posed by plastic waste from disposable tableware highlight the urgent need for sustainable alternatives. Traditional plastics decompose over centuries, generating microplastics that threaten ecosystems and human health. While lignin has emerged as a promising material for plastic replacement, its inherent dark brown color and processing challenges in paper-based products have limited its application, particularly in food-contact materials. Here, to address these limitations, we have developed biodegradable sandwich-structured paper composites comprising parchment paper as surface layers and a lignin-polymer core with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and polylactic acid (PLA). This innovative structure eliminates the need for binders, minimizing potential food contamination, and enables direct application as packaging or molded tableware. Lignin micro- and nano-particles (LMNP) enhances durability and provides natural water and oil resistance without harmful additives, such as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), while PVA and PLA improve the composite's tenacity. The resulting material, composed of 65 wt% lignin, demonstrates excellent water and oil resistance, with no penetration exceeding 1 h, and exhibits enhanced tensile strength (45 MPa), making it a viable and eco-friendly alternative for disposable tableware.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Van der Waals Sandwich Structures for Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) intensity of two-dimensional (2D) materials critically depends on the resonant conditions and factors such as the substrate interferences and molecule adsorption fluctuations, making comprehensive investigation, understanding, and optimization of 2D materials-assisted SERS challenging. Here, in this work, the wavelength-dependent SERS of van der Waals structures of 2D materials is systematically investigated, focusing on the intrinsic frequency-dependent Raman tensors by first-principles method while ruling out other extrinsic factors in experiments. Distinct enhancement profiles are found for different 2D materials, among which MoS2 and graphene exhibit remarkably strong and broadband enhancement effects. For stacked multilayers and heterostructures of 2D materials, the calculated SERS addresses the significance of the first contact monolayer effect. Based on the above theory, the van der Waals sandwich structures are proposed and investigated as the SERS substrates, verifying a further significantly enhanced SERS performance. This resonant first-principles study demonstrates a comprehensive and analytical way to explore and promote the SERS of van der Waals structures.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2020

Unraveling the Crystallization Kinetics of 2D Perovskites with Sandwich-Type Structure for High-Performance Photovoltaics

2D perovskite solar cells with high stability and high efficiency have attracted significant attention. A systematical static and dynamic structure investigation is carried out to show the details of 2D morphology evolution. A dual additive approach is used, where the synergy between an alkali metal cation and a polar solvent leads to high-quality 2D perovskite films with sandwich-type structures and vertical phase segregation. Such novel structure can induce high-quality 2D slab growth and reduce internal and surface defects, resulting in a high device efficiency of 16.48% with enhanced continuous illumination stability and improved moisture (55-60%) and thermal (85°C) tolerances. Transient absorption spectra reveal the carrier migration from low n to high n species with different kinetics. An [PbI 6 ] 4- octagon coalescence transformation mechanism coupled with metal and organic cations wrapped is proposed. By solvent vapor annealing, a recrystallization and reorientation of the 2D perovskite slabs occurs to form an ideal structure with improved device performance and stability.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Ring Size Effects on the Structures of Sandwich Compounds with a Stoichiometry of C 12 H 12 M (M = Ti–Ni)

Ring size effects on geometries and electronic structures were investigated for the (C n H n )M(C m H m ) (n = 4, 5, or 6; m = 8, 7, or 6; m + n = 12; M = Ti–Ni) systems using density functional theory. The lowest-energy C 12 H 12 M structures for the early transition metals titanium, vanadium, and chromium are the experimentally known singlet (η 5 -C 5 H 5 )Ti(η 7 -C 7 H 7 ), doublet (η 5 -C 5 H 5 )V(η 7 -C 7 H 7 ), and singlet (η 6 -C 6 H 6 ) 2 Cr, respectively. The likewise experimentally known singlet (η 6 -C 6 H 6 ) 2 Ti, doublet (η 6 -C 6 H 6 ) 2 V, and singlet (η 5 -C 5 H 5 )Cr(η 7 -C 7 H 7 ) are the secondlowest- energy structures with only a small energy difference between the two vanadium structures. For the later transition metals, dibenzenemetal complexes are the lowest-energy C 12 H 12 M species with two fully bonded hexahapto benzene rings in the lowest-energy manganese and iron derivatives and one hexahapto and one dihapto benzene ring in the lowest-energy cobalt and nickel derivatives. The lowest-energy (C 5 H 5 )M(C 7 H 7 ) structures for the later transition metals iron, cobalt, and nickel have partially bonded nonplanar C 7 H 7 rings with one or two uncomplexed C=C bonds. The (C 4 H 4 )M(C 8 H 8 ) (M = Ti–Ni) structures with the metal sandwiched between four- and eight-membered rings were found to be much higher in energy than their (C 5 H 5 )M(C 7 H 7 ) and (C 6 H 6 ) 2 M isomers.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Development of a Vibration Technique Based on Geometric Optimization for Fatigue Life Evaluation of Sandwich Composite Structures

A major obstacle to obtaining cost-effective experimental data on the fatigue life of sandwich panels is the prohibitive amount of time and cost required to carry out millions of cycles. On the other hand, vibration techniques applied to sandwich geometries fail to match the stress patterns that are obtained from standard flexural fatigue tests. To overcome such limitations, a vibration-based fatigue technique is proposed, which entails the use of sandwich specimens whose geometries are optimized to reproduce the stress distribution observed during three point bend loading while vibrating at the first resonant frequency. The proposed vibration technique was experimentally validated. The results, compared with the average number of cycles to failure at different stress ratios obtained via the Three-Point Bending test, showed high levels of accuracy. The proposed method is robust and time effective and indicates the possibility of attaining fatigue lifetime prediction of a wide class of composite elements, such as sandwich panels.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Elastic wave suppression through additively manufactured petal lattice metamaterials

Lattice-core sandwich structure metamaterials are lightweight alternatives to monolithic materials that can present better mechanical, thermal, and energy dampening performance. Manufacturing lattice metamaterials to follow curved surfaces can pose a challenge, as the lattices rely on their geometric orientation to the substrate for their mechanical properties. This work rationally designed a lattice structure where the surface is broken up into “petals” connected to the underlying lattice, which localizes the petals’ impact response. This design opens a pathway for implementation of lattice-core sandwich structures onto complex surface geometries. These petal structures were evaluated for their energy absorption efficiency experimentally by utilizing pressure waves generated with nanosecond lasers and computationally via finite element modeling. The lattice structures exhibited a two-orders-of-magnitude decrease in transmitted pressure compared to their constituent steel at equivalent mass. Furthermore, localizing energy absorption into petal structures provided a 44% reduction in peak load compared to a continuous “single-petal” design.

Sarracino, Alex↗
DOE OSTI2022

Characterization and repair of core gap manufacturing defects for wind turbine blades

Various wind turbine blade components, such as shear webs and skins, commonly use fiber-reinforced composite sandwich structures with a core material like balsa or foam. During manufacturing, core gap defects may result from the misalignment of adjacent foam or balsa core sheets in the blade mold. It is important to understand the influence that core gaps have on the structural integrity of wind turbine blades and how to mitigate their influence. This research characterized the effects of core gap defects at the manufacturing and mechanical levels for both epoxy and next-generation thermoplastic composites. Common repair methods were assessed and compared. Multiple defect sizes were compared using temperature data gathered with thermocouples embedded during manufacturing to core gap defect characteristics obtained using image-mapping techniques, optical microscopy, and mechanical characterization by long beam flexure. Results showed that peak exothermic temperatures during curing were closely related to core gap size. The long beam flexure tests determined that transverse core gaps under pure bending loads can have a substantial effect on the ultimate facesheet strength of both epoxy and thermoplastic composite sandwich structures (up to 25% strength reduction), although the size of the defect itself had less of an influence on the magnitude of the strength reduction. The supporting image-mapping techniques indicated that the distortion of the composite facesheets by the core gaps contributed to the premature failures. The repair methods used in this study did very little to improve the ultimate strength of the sandwich panels that previously had core gap defects. The repair of the thermoplastic panel resulted in a further loss in ultimate facesheet strength. This research demonstrated that there is a vital need for the development of a compatible thermoplastic polymer repair resin system and appropriate resin specific repair procedures for the next generation of recyclable thermoplastic wind blades.

17 WIND ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Proximity Ferroelectricity in Compositionally Graded Structures

Proximity ferroelectricity is a novel paradigm for inducing ferroelectricity in a non-ferroelectric polar material, such as AlN or ZnO that are typically unswitchable with an external field below their dielectric breakdown field. When placed in direct contact with a thin switchable ferroelectric layer (such as Al 1-x Sc x N or Zn 1-x Mg x O), they become a practically switchable ferroelectric. Using the thermodynamic Landau-Ginzburg-Devonshire theory, in this work, we perform the finite element modeling of the polarization switching in the compositionally graded AlN-Al 1-x Sc x N, ZnO-Zn 1-x Mg x O, and MgO-Zn 1-x Mg x O structures sandwiched in both a parallel-plate capacitor geometry as well as in a sharp probe-planar electrode geometry. We reveal that the compositionally graded structure allows the simultaneous switching of spontaneous polarization in the whole system by a coercive field significantly lower than the electric breakdown field of unswitchable polar materials. The physical mechanism is the depolarization electric field determined by the gradient of chemical composition “x”. The field lowers the steepness of the switching barrier in the otherwise unswitchable parts of the compositionally graded AlN-Al 1-x Sc x N and ZnO-Zn 1-x Mg x O structures. In the MgO-like regions of the compositionally graded MgO-Zn 1-x Mg x O structure, a shallow double-well free energy potential emerges. Proximity ferroelectric switching of the compositionally graded structures placed in the probe-electrode geometry occurs due to nanodomain formation under the tip. We predict that a gradient of chemical composition “x” significantly lowers effective coercive fields of the compositionally graded AlN-Al 1-x Sc x N and ZnO-Zn 1-x Mg x O structures compared to the coercive fields of the corresponding multilayers with a uniform chemical composition in each layer. A tip-induced switching further lowers the coercive field, enabling control of ferroelectric domains in otherwise unswitchable compositionally graded structures, which can provide nanoscale domain control for memory, actuation, sensing, and optical applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Structural response of 3D-printed rubber lattice structures under compressive fatigue

In this work, a new direct UV curing, polyurethane-like, highly stretchable rubber, Elastic ToughRubber 90™ (ETR 90), is demonstrated for 3D printing via photocuring with Texas Instruments DLP® optical systems. An array of test specimens, comprising a sandwich structure with a body-centered cubic lattice core, are 3D printed from ETR 90. The compressive behavior of these specimens is characterized up to 10 k and up to 100 k fatigue-loading cycles. The internal, visually obstructed, structures under loads are visualized using in situ X-ray tomography. All lattice structures remain intact and full recovery is observed, indicating the cyclic durability of the 3D-printed rubber.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Solving complex nanostructures with ptychographic atomic electron tomography

Abstract Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is essential for determining atomic scale structures in structural biology and materials science. In structural biology, three-dimensional structures of proteins are routinely determined from thousands of identical particles using phase-contrast TEM. In materials science, three-dimensional atomic structures of complex nanomaterials have been determined using atomic electron tomography (AET). However, neither of these methods can determine the three-dimensional atomic structure of heterogeneous nanomaterials containing light elements. Here, we perform ptychographic electron tomography from 34.5 million diffraction patterns to reconstruct an atomic resolution tilt series of a double wall-carbon nanotube (DW-CNT) encapsulating a complex ZrTe sandwich structure. Class averaging the resulting tilt series images and subpixel localization of the atomic peaks reveals a Zr 11 Te 50 structure containing a previously unobserved ZrTe 2 phase in the core. The experimental realization of atomic resolution ptychographic electron tomography will allow for the structural determination of a wide range of beam-sensitive nanomaterials containing light elements.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗