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The state of soil evolution can be charted by net long-term volume and elemental mass changes for individual horizons compared with parent material. Volume collapse or dilation depends on relative elemental mass fluxes associated with losses form or additions to soil horizons.
Soils of the 62-cm deep Apollo 16 double drive tube 60013/14 are mature at the top and submature at the bottom. Modal analyses of 5529 grains from the 90-150 micrometers and the 500-1000 micrometers fractions from 12 levels of the core show that, in general, agglutinate abundance increases somewhat monotonically to the top and mimics the Is/FeO profile. There is a general decrease in the modal abundance of monomineralic fragments towards the top, suggesting that agglutinates were formed in part at the expense of monomineralic grains, especially feldspars, which are by far the most abundant mineral in these soils. In detail, the top 27 cm of the core differs from the bottom 21 cm, and the middle 14 cm is intermediate in its properties. In the upper segment, variations in the abundances of feldspars correspond with those of feldspathic fragmental breccias and cataclastic anorthosites; in the bottom segment, a similar but weak correspondence between feldspars and crystalline matrix breccias is observed. Mixing of the comminuted products of these three rock types likely produced the bulk of the core material. Many single feldspars in all size fractions are remarkably fresh, show no damage from shock, and are similar in appearance to the large feldspars in anorthosites and feldspathic fragmental breccias, which we consider to be the primary sources of single feldspars in this core. Major (Na, Al, Si, K, Ca) and minor (Fe, Ba) element analyses of 198 single feldspar grains indicate the presence of only one population of feldspars, which is consistent with our interpretation of feldspar provenance. Classification of 890 monomineralic feldspar, olivine, pyroxene, and glass spherules on the basis of the presence or absence of thin brownish coating--related to reworking at the surface--shows that coated grains are much more abundant in the top segment than in the bottom segment. A comparison with the mixing and maturation model (McKay et al., 1977) of soils in the core 60009/10, some 60 m away from 60013/14, shows that mixtures of an immature, nearly pure plagioclase soil (dominant in 60009/10) and another immature, crystalline breccia-rich soil (dominant in 60013/14) may have matured through in situ reworking to produce the soils under investigation. We conclude that the soils in this core are products of mixing along soil evolution Path 2 of McKay et al. (1974). Superimposed on that soil column is the reworking of the upper part, which has evolved more recently along Path 1. This core thus represents a consanguineous column of the lunar regolith with an upper reworked segment.
Mass-balance interpretation of a soil chronosequence provides a means of quantifying elemental addition, removal, and transformation that occur in soils from a flight of marine terraces in northern California. Six soil profiles that range in age from several to 240,000 yr are developed in unconsolidated, sandy-marine, and eolian parent material deposited on bedrock marine platforms. Soil evolution is dominated by (1) open-system depletion of Si, Ca, Mg, K, and Na; (2) open-system enrichment of P in surface soil horizons; (3) relative immobility of Fe and Al; and (4) transformation of Fe, Si, and Al in the parent material to secondary clay minerals and sesquioxides. Net mass losses of bases and Si are generally uniform with depth and substantial, in some cases approaching 100 percent; however, the rate of loss of each element differs markedly, causing the ranking of each by relative abundance to shift with time. Loss of Si from the sand fraction by dissolution and particle-size diminution, from about 100 percent to less than 35 percent over 240 ky, mirrors a similar gain in the silt and clay size fractions. The Fe originally present in the sand fraction decreases from greater than 80 percent to less than 10 percent, whereas the amount of Fe present in the clay and crystalline oxyhydroxide fractions increases to 25 percent and 70 percent, respectively.
Channels left in soil by decayed roots and burrowing animals allow organic and inorganic precipitates and detritus to move through soil from above, to depths at which the minuteness of pores restricts further passage. Consecutive translocation-and-root-growth phases stir the soil, constituting an invasive, dilatational process which generates cumulative strains. Below the depths thus affected, mineral dissolution by descending organic acids leads to internal collapse; this softened/condensed precursor horizon is then transformed into soil via biological activity that mixes and expands the evolving residuum through root and micropore-network invasion.
The Lunar Soil Characterization Consortium (LSCC) has obtained samples of Luna 16, 20 and 24 soils. Although these particular samples encountered contamination during processing, preliminary results are consistent with previous integrated analyses and expand the soil data to three additional sites.
Comminution, agglutination, and replenishment processes in a lunar soil are modeled by a system of time-dependent linear differential equations. In the model, a soil is subdivided into coarse-particle, fine-particle, and agglutinate fractions. The relative mass abundance of each component in a mature soil is found to be proportional to rates for the reworking processes. Evolution of the grain-size distribution from a fresh ejecta blanket to a mature soil is described quantitatively in terms of the changing proportions of the three soil constituents. If size data are available for an immature soil and a mature soil of the same system, rates for the various processes can be calculated under certain simplifying assumptions.
Six samples from the upper core 60010 of the double drive core 60009/60010 were analyzed for grain size distribution, petrographic particle types and abundances, magnetic fraction, and ferromagnetic resonance. It was found that the magnetic fraction of these soils is not equivalent to the agglutinate fraction, and magnetic separation partitions high-FeO agglutinate from low-FeO agglutinates. Various maturity indices are in essential agreement. The deposition of most or all of the core could have occurred in a single event. If that is the case, the core units have no time-stratigraphic significance and do not reflect individual cratering events.
Grain-size data are presented for Apollo-17 soils, and the relationship is considered between grain-size distribution and the processes which pulverize the soil, reconstitute it as agglutinates, and replenish it with fresh material. It is shown that a strong inverse correlation exists between mean grain size and standard deviation and that there is a correlation between grain size and agglutinate content whereby the finest samples have the highest agglutinate content. Two evolutionary sequences are described for the soils in which (1) reworking by micrometeorites predominates over mixing with other soils and (2) mixing predominates over reworking. It is shown that the final result of soil evolution may be a steady-state soil where pulverization by micrometeorites is balanced by agglutination and replenishment of coarser grains. A model is presented for such a soil, and it is argued that its grain-size distribution may depend on regolith thickness.-
Simulations of N2O and CO2 emissions from soils were conducted with a rain-event driven, process-oriented model (DNDC) of nitrogen and carbon cycling processes in soils. The magnitude and trends of simulated N2O (or N2O + N2) and CO2 emissions were consistent with the results obtained in field experiments. The successful simulation of these emissions from the range of soil types examined demonstrates that the DNDC will be a useful tool for the study of linkages among climate, soil-atmosphere interactions, land use, and trace gas fluxes.
Mineralogical evolution of lunar soils as a function of agglutinate content can be described with the help of a two-component model. Steady-state condition of exposed lunar soils can be achieved only by the balance of comminution, agglutination, and replenishment processes. Rate of replenishment depends on the meteoroid flux and the nature of the substrate which varies both in space and time. Rates of agglutination and comminution depend not only on the micrometeoritic flux but also on the chemical and modal composition of an exposed soil. It is concluded from modeling the above that steady-state condition of lunar soils is independent of its maturity or exposure age. Agglutinate content of a lunar soil can be used to estimate the relative exposure age of the soil only if the soil is in a non-steady-state condition.
Recycled lunar soil grains are defined as those soil grains that have been a part of either regolith breccias or agglutinates; thus, mineral grains, rock fragments, older agglutinates, and volcanic glass spherules, if dislodged from an agglutinate or a regolith breccia, would all qualify as recycled grains. This paper shows that it is possible to estimate the proportion of recycled material in lunar soils. Optical data from 12 soils in the Apollo 16 core 64001/2 were collected to estimate the proportion (W) of recycled crystalline grains in each of these soils. The W values show a correspondence with other independently derived parameters and the history of the core soils, indicating that W can be used as a valid soil-evolution parameter.
The titles in this section include: 1) Global Mixing as a Mechanism for Compositional Anomalies of Agglutinitic Glasses; 2) Electron Microscopy of Apollo 12 Glass Spherules; 3) 40Ar-39Ar Geochronology on Apollo 12 Regolith; 4) LSCC Apollo and Luna Soil Analyses: Update of Soil Evolution Model; 5) Planetary Regolith Microstructure: An Unexpected Opposition Effect Result; 6) Infrared Spectroscopy on a Microscopic Scale: Investigating the Technique of Microspectroscopy and Its Application to a Lunar Breccia; 7) The Most Reduced Rock from the Moon - Apollo 14 Basalt 14053: Extreme Reduction Entirely from a Re-Heating Event.
Reflectance spectroscopy has demonstrated that high albedo surfaces on Mars contain heavily altered materials with some component of hematite, poorly crystalline ferric oxides, and an undefined silicate matrix. The spectral properties of many low albedo regions indicate crystalline basalts containing both low and high calcium pyroxene, a mineralogy consistent with the basaltic SNC meteorites. The Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) experiment on the Mars Geochemical Surveyor has acquired critical new data relevant to surface composition and mineralogy, but in a wavelength region that is complementary to reflectance spectroscopy. The essence of the completed research was to analyze TES data in the context of reflectance data obtained by the French ISM imaging spectrometer experiment in 1989. This approach increased our understanding of the complementary nature of these wavelength regions for mineralogic determinations using actual observations of the martian surface. The research effort focused on three regions of scientific importance: Syrtis Major-Isidis Basin, Oxia Palus-Arabia, and Valles Marineris. In each region distinct spatial variations related to reflectance, and in derived mineralogic information and interpreted compositional units were analyzed. In addition, specific science questions related to the composition of volcanics and crustal evolution, soil compositions and pedogenic processes, and the relationship between pristine lithologies and weathering provided an overall science-driven framework for the work. The detailed work plan involved colocation of TES and ISM data, extraction of reflectance and emissivity spectra from areas of known reflectance variability, and quantitative analysis using factor analysis and statistical techniques to determine the degree of correspondence between these different wavelength regions. Identified coherent variations in TES spectroscopy were assessed against known atmospheric effects to validate that the variations are due to surface properties. With this new understanding of reflectance and emission spectroscopy, mineralogic interpretations were derived and applied to the science objectives of the three regions.
The radiobrightness of a snowpack is strongly linked to the snow moisture content profile, to the point that the only operational inversion algorithms require dry snow. Forward dynamic models do not include the effects of freezing and thawing of the soil beneath the snowpack and the effect of vegetation within the snow or above the snow. To get a more realistic description of the evolution of the snowpack, we reported an addition to the Snow-Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere- Transfer (SSVAT) model, wherein we coupled soil processes of the Land Surface Process (LSP) model with the snow model SNTHERM. In the near future we will be adding a radiobrightness prediction based on the modeled moisture, temperature and snow grain size profiles. The initial investigations with this SSVAT for a late winter and early spring snow pack indicate that soil processes warm the snowpack and the soil. Vapor diffusion needs to be considered whenever the ground is thawed. In the early spring, heat flow from the ground into a snow and a strong temperature gradient across the snow lead to thermal convection. The buried vegetation can be ignored for a late winter snow pack. The warmer surface snow temperature will affect radiobrightness since it is most sensitive to snow surface characteristics. Comparison to data shows that SSVAT provides a more realistic representation of the temperature and moisture profiles in the snowpack and its underlying soil than SNTHERM. The radiobrightness module will be optimized for the prediction of brightness when the snow is moist. The liquid water content of snow causes considerable absorption compared to dry snow, and so longer wavelengths are likely to be most revealing as to the state of a moist snowpack. For volumetric moisture contents below about 7% (the pendular regime), the water forms rings around the contact points between snow grains. Electrostatic modeling of these pendular rings shows that the absorption of these rings is significantly higher than a sphere of the same volume. The first implementation of the radiobrightness module will therefore be a simple radiative transfer model without scattering.
The evolution of N2, Ar, O2, and CO2 from Martian soil as a function of humidity in the Gas Exchange Experiment are correlated with the mean level of water vapor in the Martian atmosphere. All but O2 are associated with desorption. The evolution of oxygen is consistent with the presence of alkaline earth and alkali metal superoxides; and their peroxides and the gamma-Fe2O3 in the soil can account for the generation of radioactive gas in the Labeled Release Experiment. The slower evolution of CO2 from both the Gas Exchange Experiment and the Labeled Release Experiment are associated with the direct oxidation of organics by gamma-Fe2O3. The Pyrolytic Release Experiment's second peak may be carbon suboxide as demonstrated by laboratory experiments. A necessary condition is that the polymer exists in the Martian soil. We ascribe the activity of the surface samples to the reaction of Martian particulates with an anhydrous CO2 atmosphere activated by uv and ionizing radiations. The surface particles are ultimately altered by exposure to small but significant amounts of water at the sites. From the working model, we have predicted the peculiar nature of the chemical entities and demonstrated that the model is justified by laboratory data. The final confirmation of this model will entail a return to Mars, but the nature and implications of this chemistry for the Martian surface is predicted to reveal even more about Mars with further simulations in the laboratory.
Substrates at the Apollo 15 and 16 sites were analyzed and showed essentially the same graphic mean, graphic standard deviation, and graphic skewness. The graphic kurtosis of Apollo 16 soils is slightly smaller than that of Apollo 15. In Apollo 15 soil samples, grain size and graphic standard deviation increase with depth, while the trend is reversed in Apollo 16 soil samples. Lower sphericity values for Apollo 15 samples coincide with concentrations of highly irregularly shaped glass particles. Two-dimensional sphericity of Apollo 15 samples is contoured as a function of particle size and depth below lunar surface. The results are consistent with an overall model for soil development in which samples closer to the surface are more mature in response to more prolonged reworking of meteorite impact.
The investigation reported is concerned with the qualitative expansion of an earlier model developed by Lindsay (1971, 1972, 1973). Questions regarding the maturity of lunar soils are examined. A multivariate model related to textural maturity is considered, taking into account mean and standard deviations, the asymmetry of the grain size curve, the kurtosis anomaly, and pyroclastic materials. It is concluded that the mean grain size and the standard deviation of the lunar soil can be used as general indicators of the textural maturity of the soil anywhere on the lunar surface.
The potential predictability of the effects of warm season soil moisture anomalies over the central U.S. has been investigated using a series of GCM (Global Climate Model) experiments with the NCAR (National Center for Atmospheric Research) CCM3 (Community Climate Model version 3)/LSM (Land Surface Model). Three different types of experiments have been made, all starting in either March (representing precursor conditions) or June (conditions at the onset of the warm season): (1) 'anomaly' runs with large, exaggerated initial soil moisture reductions, aimed at evaluating the physical mechanisms by which soil moisture can affect the atmosphere; (2) 'predictability' runs aimed at evaluating whether typical soil moisture initial anomalies (indicative of year-to-year variability) can have a significant effect, and if so, for how long; (3) 'threshold' runs aimed at evaluating if a soil moisture anomaly must be of a specific size (i.e., a threshold crossed) before a significant impact on the atmosphere is seen. The 'anomaly' runs show a large, long-lasting response in soil moisture and also quantities such as surface temperature, sea level pressure, and precipitation; effects persist for at least a year. The 'predictability' runs, on the other hand, show very little impact of the initial soil moisture anomalies on the subsequent evolution of soil moisture and other atmospheric parameters; internal variability is most important, with the initial state of the atmosphere (representing remote effects such as SST anomalies) playing a more minor role. The 'threshold' runs, devised to help resolve the dichotomy in 'anomaly' and 'predictability' results, suggest that, at least in CCM3/LSM, the vertical profile of soil moisture is the most important factor, and that deep soil zone anomalies exert a more powerful, long-lasting effect than do anomalies in the near surface soil zone. We therefore suggest that soil moisture feedbacks may be more important in explaining prolonged decadal to century-long droughts evident in the historic and recent prehistoric records, but less important on a seasonal to interannual time-scale.