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Results for “Two-dimensional cracking”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 19 records
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Calibration of cohesive parameters for fracture test simulations of sub-sized bend specimens of AM steels

In this work, crack extensions in sub-sized side-grooved bend specimens of AM steels are examined with changing cohesive parameters. Two-dimensional FE analyses are first conducted to simulate crack extensions by nodal release. The simulation results indicate the near-tip maximum opening stress and separation work rate increase and then slightly decrease for the bend specimens. The hydrogen-charged bend specimens have lower near-tip maximum opening stresses and average separation work rates than those of the uncharged bend specimens. The changing near-tip maximum opening stresses and the separation work rates with increasing crack extension are determined as references for the changing cohesive strengths and energies, respectively. Two-dimensional FE analyses with different changing cohesive parameters are then performed. The simulation results with calibrated cohesive parameters can match well with the test results. The hydrogen-charged specimens have the lower changing cohesive strength vs crack growth curves compared with those of the uncharged specimens. The hydrogen-charged specimens have either lower or similar changing cohesive energy vs crack growth curves compared with those of the uncharged specimens. Finally, a three-dimensional FE analysis is conducted to simulate crack extension by nodal release in one bend specimen to examine the stress triaxialities in front of the growing crack fronts at different locations from the center plane to the planes near the side groove front with increasing crack extension to identify possible physical reasons for the changing cohesive parameters.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Micromechanics of Fracture Propagation During Multistage Stress Relaxation and Creep in Brittle Rocks

Time-dependent rock deformation caused by the initiation and growth of fractures leads to the weakening of the rock mass. Understanding the fracturing mechanisms involved in the time-dependent behavior in brittle rocks is very important and to achieve this goal, a systematic series of three types of experiments was performed on double-flawed prismatic Barre granite specimens under unconfined compression. The first series aimed to identify the failure mechanism in the short-term failure mode under monotonic loading, the, second series involved multistage relaxation (constant strain) experiments to analyze the damage at different strain levels, and the third series explored the fracture propagation under multistage creep (constant load) experiments. The spatial and temporal evolution of cracking mechanisms were evaluated using the acoustic emission (AE) and two-dimensional digital image correlation (2D-DIC) techniques to observe the whole crack growth process as well as the accumulated inelastic strain at the specified region of interest. Results suggest that in the case of multistage creep experiments, the time to failure was less compared to the multistage relaxation, when loaded above the crack damage threshold (CD) estimated from the monotonic testing. Furthermore, the frequency magnitude distribution of the AE events generated in the three loading conditions followed the Gutenberg Richter model. A relatively lower b-value was obtained for the creep experiments, indicative of high energy AE events and faster crack growth. In addition, the AE and DIC results also revealed high evolution of tensile cracks at-different stages of creep and relaxation compared to shear and mixed-mode cracks.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Poromechanical cohesive interface element with combined Mode I-II cohesive zone elastoplasticity for simulating fracture in fluid-saturated porous media

A combined Mode I-II cohesive zone (CZ) elasto-plastic constitutive model, and a two-dimensional (2D) cohesive interface element (CIE) are formulated and implemented at small strain within an ABAQUS User Element (UEL) for simulating 2D crack nucleation and propagation in fluid-saturated porous media. Here, the CZ model mitigates problems of convergence for the global Newton-Raphson solver within ABAQUS, which when combined with a viscous stabilization procedure allows for simulation of post-peak response under load control for coupled poromechanical finite element analysis, such as concrete gravity dam stability analysis. Verification examples are presented, along with a more complex ambient limestone-concrete wedge fracture experiment, water-pressurized concrete wedge experiment, and concrete gravity dam stability analyses. A calibration procedure for estimating the CZ parameters is demonstrated with the limestone-concrete wedge fracture process. For the water-pressurized concrete wedge fracture experiment it is shown that the inherent time-dependence of the poromechanical CIE analysis provides a good match with experimental force versus displacement results at various crack mouth opening rates, yet misses the pore water pressure evolution ahead of the crack tip propagation. This is likely a result of the concrete being partially-saturated in the experiment, whereas the finite element analysis assumes fully water saturated concrete. For the concrete gravity dam analysis, it is shown that base crack opening and associated water uplift pressure leads to a reduced Factor of Safety, which is confirmed by separate analytical calculations.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2025

XFEM Development for Modeling Crack Growth in Prototypical Welded Components

Nuclear power plant components are subjected to harsh operating environments that can lead to multiple degradation mechanisms in which fracture can play a prominent role. Predicting crack growth is important for assessing the integrity of welded components. The extended finite element method (XFEM) is an important tool for modeling such crack growth, and XFEM capabilities have been developed within the MOOSE framework. This report documents work in the MOOSE XFEM module to model fractures in three-dimensional representations of components using a topologically two-dimensional mesh to define cutting planes. Crack growth algorithms have been implemented to evolve the cutting mesh based on equations for stress corrosion cracking. Additionally, several usability and robustness improvements have been developed to enable three-dimensional fracture simulations. The cutting algorithms were demonstrated on a three-dimensional model of a prototypical reactor component undergoing stress corrosion cracking driven by idealized weld residual stresses. This is an incremental step toward using this capability to model more complex components with residual stresses computed through welding process simulations.

42 - ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2023

A phase-field model for hydraulic fracture nucleation and propagation in porous media

Many geo-engineering applications, for example, enhanced geothermal systems, rely on hydraulic fracturing to enhance the permeability of natural formations and allow for sufficient fluid circulation. Over the past few decades, the phase-field method has grown in popularity as a valid approach to modeling hydraulic fracturing because of the ease of handling complex fracture propagation geometries. However, existing phase-field methods cannot appropriately capture nucleation of hydraulic fractures because their formulations are solely energy-based and do not explicitly take into account the strength of the material. Thus, in this work, we propose a novel phase-field formulation for hydraulic fracturing with the main goal of modeling fracture nucleation in porous media, for example, rocks. Built on the variational formulation of previous phase-field methods, the proposed model incorporates the material strength envelope for hydraulic fracture nucleation through two important steps: (i) an external driving force term, included in the damage evolution equation, that accounts for the material strength; (ii) a properly designed damage function that defines the fluid pressure contribution on the crack driving force. In conclusion, the comparison of numerical results for two-dimensional test cases with existing analytical solutions demonstrates that the proposed phase-field model can accurately model both nucleation and propagation of hydraulic fractures. Additionally, we present the simulation of hydraulic fracturing in a three-dimensional domain with various stress conditions to demonstrate the applicability of the method to realistic scenarios.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

A phase-field model of quasi-brittle fracture for pressurized cracks: Application to UO 2 high-burnup microstructure fragmentation

Here, in this paper, we present a phase-field model of quasi-brittle fracture with pressurized cracks, with dedicated applications for polycrystalline materials. The model is formulated as a minimization problem within the variational framework. The external work done by pressure on the crack surfaces is included in the objective function. Several careful modeling choices lead to a regularization-length-independent critical strength. The model is constructed to give a softening response with an underlying linear traction-separation law. The pressure-dependent softening response and the regularization of the prescribed pressure are demonstrated with a (quasi) one-dimensional numerical analysis. In a two-dimensional numerical analysis under plane strain assumptions, the critical stress corresponding to crack propagation (as predicted by our quasi-brittle fracture model) is compared with linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) analytical solutions. Our model is further utilized to simulate fission-gas-induced fragmentation of the UO 2 high-burnup structure (HBS). Simulation results show that pressurized bubbles can cause crack nucleation and propagation, and that the bubble size and the surrounding external pressure affect the critical pressure corresponding to crack nucleation. Simulations of a partial HBS at different recrystallization stages show that different grain structures (due to recrystallization) also influence crack paths and fragmentation morphology.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Artificial neural network potentials for mechanics and fracture dynamics of two-dimensional crystals **

Understanding the mechanics and failure of materials at the nanoscale is critical for their engineering and applications. The accurate atomistic modeling of brittle failure with crack propagation in covalent crystals requires a quantum mechanics-based description of individual bond-breaking events. Artificial neural network potentials (NNPs) have emerged to overcome the traditional, physics-based modeling tradeoff between accuracy and accessible time and length scales. Previous studies have shown successful applications of NNPs for describing the structure and dynamics of molecular systems and amorphous or liquid phases of materials. However, their application to deformation and failure processes in materials is still uncommon. In this study, we discuss the apparent limitations of NNPs for the description of deformation and fracture under loadings and propose a way to generate and select training data for their employment in simulations of deformation and fracture simulations of crystals. We applied the proposed approach to 2D crystalline graphene, utilizing the density-functional tight-binding method for more efficient and extensive data generation in place of density functional theory. Then, we explored how the data selection affects the accuracy of the developed artificial NNPs. It revealed that NNP’s reliability should not only be measured based on the total energy and atomic force comparisons for reference structures but also utilize comparisons for physical properties, e.g. stress–strain curves and geometric deformation. In sharp contrast to popular reactive bond order potentials, our optimized NNP predicts straight crack propagation in graphene along both armchair and zigzag (ZZ) lattice directions, as well as higher fracture toughness of ZZ edge direction. Our study provides significant insight into crack propagation mechanisms on atomic scales and highlights strategies for NNP developments of broader materials.

2D materials↗
DOE OSTI2022

Cracking in first ramp to power of standard versus high thermal conductivity UO2 pellets via internal nuclear heating

Advanced fuel designs that incorporate thinner fuel UO2 pellets interspaced by high thermal conductivity inserts have been proposed, with the primary goals of reducing peak centerline temperatures and temperature gradients across fuel pellets and enhancing heat transfer from the fuel to the coolant. An initial series of experiments has been performed on this design, including laboratory experiments and a series of experiments using the Idaho National Laboratory (INL) Transient Reactor Test (TREAT) Facility, the latter of which compared thermal gradient driven fracture of standard pellet designs with that in the proposed advanced fuel design. Although reducing fracture is not the primary objective of the new fuel design, the lower thermal gradients are expected to reduce fracture, so it can serve as an indicator of the thermal behavior of this fuel in the reactor. The in-reactor tests were conducted at multiple linear heat generation rates and confirm the expected result that fracture in both the standard and advanced fuel pellets occurs during the first ramp to power in standard light-water reactor conditions. Post-irradiation examination of the experiment material was performed and included quantification of the extent of fracture in the fuel pellets. It was found that the advanced-design pellets reduce the extent of fracture in a statistically significant way. This confirms the expected behavior predicted by two-dimensional axisymmetric models of this experiment. This study is an important first experimental confirmation of the efficacy of the proposed inserts for achieving their desired effect on the thermal behavior of the fuel.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2023

First-Principles Study of n -Butane Monomolecular Cracking and Dehydrogenation on Two-Dimensional-Zeolite Model Systems: Reaction Mechanisms and Effects of Spatial Confinement

Two-dimensional (2D) ultrathin (~0.5 nm) aluminosilicate bilayer films, consisting of hexagonal prisms (a.k.a. double 6-membered rings D6R) with acidic bridging hydroxyl groups exposed on the surface, have been previously synthesized on a Ru(0001) surface as a zeolite model system. These structures are helpful for mimicking zeolite catalysts with D6R building blocks, such as chabazite. We performed density functional theory calculations to investigate the monomolecular cracking and dehydrogenation of n-butane molecules over the acidic hydroxyl groups of the 2D model system and compared the reaction energetics with that in bulk chabazite. The intrinsic activation energy barrier is the highest for dehydrogenation and lowest for central C–C bond cracking in bulk chabazite. The trend of intrinsic energy barriers for dehydrogenation and terminal and central C–C bond cracking is reproduced on the 2D aluminosilicate film. Overall, the activation barriers are higher on the 2D film than in bulk chabazite due to the lack of confinement in the former. We further explored the effects of the zeolite channel size on the n-butane adsorption and monomolecular cracking using different bulk nanoporous zeolite frameworks (TON, MEL, MEI, and VFI). We found that as the confinement of channels decreases, n-butane adsorption becomes weaker, and the intrinsic energy barrier of terminal C–C cracking increases. The activation energy barriers (dehydrogenation and terminal and central C–C cracking) on the 2D bilayer film surface, which may be considered as zeolite cages at the infinite cage size limit, are close to that in VFI with a relatively large channel size. Comparing the reaction pathway of n-butane terminal C–C cracking in 3D nanocages and on the surface of the 2D aluminosilicate film revealed that stabilizing the transition states in the 3D nanocages is responsible for the decrease in the intrinsic energy barriers for bulk zeolites.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Self-absorption correction on 2D X-ray fluorescence maps

Abstract X-ray fluorescence mapping (XRF) is a highly efficient and non-invasive technique for quantifying material composition with micro and nanoscale spatial resolutions. Quantitative XRF analysis, however, confronts challenges from the long-lasting problem called self-absorption. Moreover, correcting two-dimensional XRF mapping datasets is particularly difficult because it is an ill-posed inverse problem. Here we report a semi-empirical method that can effectively correct 2D XRF mapping data. The correction error is generally less than 10% from a comprehensive evaluation of the accuracy in various configurations. The proposed method was applied to quantify the composition distribution around the grain boundaries in an electrochemically corroded stainless steel sample. Highly localized Cr enrichment was found around the crack sites, which was invisible before the absorption correction.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Pyrolysis of high-density polyethylene: Degradation behaviors, kinetics, and product characteristics

Pyrolysis is a promising technology for converting plastic waste into valuable raw materials while offering a potential solution to the global plastic pollution crisis. In this study, the thermal pyrolysis of high-density polyethylene (HDPE) is investigated in a drop tube reactor under nearly isothermal conditions. The impact of reaction temperature and gas/volatile residence time on carbon conversion and product distribution is examined across a range of 500–900°C and 3.6–32.2s, respectively. Non-condensable gas products detected by online mass spectrometry are H 2 , CH 4 , C 2 H 4 , C 2 H 6 , C 3 H 6 , and C 3 H 8 . At elevated temperatures and prolonged residence time, H 2 yield reaches as high as 8.6 wt% of the initial HDPE mass due to intensified cracking reactions of C 2 –C 3 hydrocarbons and long-chain aliphatic compounds. Consequently, pyrolysis tars consist mainly of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with 5–7 rings, accompanied by visible coke deposition within the reactor. HDPE decomposition to volatiles is an endothermic process and it is complete at a temperature between 492°C and 525°C, depending on the heating rate employed, from non-isothermal thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry (TGA-DSC) measurements. The thermal degradation of HDPE pellets follows the two-dimensional nucleation growth model for conversion levels up to 0.8 with an apparent activation energy of 259–270 kJ/mol and a pre-exponential factor of 4.83 × 10 17 –1.37 × 10 19 min -1 , determined from various isoconversional methods such as Flynn-Wall-Ozawa (FWO), Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS), and Starink, along with Criado's master plots. Further, these findings provide valuable insights into optimizing process parameters and refining reactor design for pyrolysis, which can be integrated with gasification and reforming processes to enhance hydrogen production on a larger scale.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Aging studies on chemical vapor deposition and mechanically exfoliated molybdenum disulfide flakes heated in ambient air

The structural integrity of atomically thin two-dimensional molybdenum disulfide (MoS 2 ) is crucial for high-temperature applications, including nanoelectronics and optoelectronics. This study explores the structural stability and electrical performance, under extended thermal exposure in air, of MoS 2 flakes synthesized via chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and mechanical exfoliation. The MoS 2 flakes, both CVD-grown and mechanically exfoliated, were subjected to heating at 200 °C with a relative humidity of 60(±5)% for a prolonged period and investigated with atomic force microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. This study shows that CVD-grown flakes developed noticeable cracks after prolonged heating, whereas mechanically exfoliated flakes mostly retained their structural integrity. Also, both types of flakes showed a decrease in layer thickness and lateral size over time, with mechanically exfoliated flakes exhibiting a comparatively smaller reduction in substrate coverage area. In addition, MoS 2 -based two-terminal devices were subjected to heating at 150 °C for approximately 1100 h, and their electrical characterization revealed a steady rise in current during constant voltage (5 V) conditions. This study enhances our understanding of MoS 2 stability and provides guidance for improving the reliability of MoS 2 -based devices in high-temperature electronic applications.

2D materials↗
DOE OSTI2023

Tailoring the Toughening Effects in Two-Dimensional Nanomaterial-Reinforced Ceramic Matrix Composites

Abstract Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) reinforced by two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials have shown extraordinary load-carrying capacities, even in the harsh environments required by emerging applications. Their exceptional mechanical performance, especially fracture toughness, primarily arises from their heterogeneous microstructures. The deliberate dispersion of 2D reinforcements enables toughening mechanisms that are extrinsic to the matrix and thus endows the composites with substantial resistance to catastrophic failure. However, the incomplete understanding of the fracture behavior of such nanocomposites, especially the complex energy dissipation process of the matrix/reinforcement interface, limits the development of stronger and tougher CMCs. To overcome these limitations, we investigate crack deflection and energy dissipation in nanocomposites using an extended cohesive shear-lag model. This new model accounts for interfacial debonding and friction, which critically control the toughening of nanocomposites. Our analysis provides mechanistic insights for optimizing the toughening effects of CMCs.

Mechanics↗
DOE OSTI2025

Large scale polymer toughening of two-dimensional materials revealed by in situ TEM fracture tests and multiscale simulations

Two-dimensional (2D) materials offer significant potential for applications in energy-harvesting devices, batteries, sensors, and transistors. However, their intrinsic brittleness makes them prone to mechanical failure, limiting their practical use. In this work, we perform in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) fracture tests on monolayer MoSe2 and uncover an extrinsic toughening effect induced by an ultrathin adsorbed polystyrene adlayer. This adlayer substantially enhances the fracture resistance of the 2D flakes. Through a combination of molecular dynamics simulations and finite element analysis, we elucidate the molecular mechanism behind this toughening effect. Further, it arises from the active crack-bridging behavior of entangled polymer chains and the formation of a fracture process zone that stabilizes crack propagation and increases the energy required for crack extension. The proposed toughening mechanism offers a pathway to improving the mechanical reliability of 2D material-based devices by mitigating the risk of sudden failure.

2D materials↗
DOE OSTI2022

Atomistic measurement and modeling of intrinsic fracture toughness of two-dimensional materials

Quantifying the intrinsic mechanical properties of two-dimensional (2D) materials is essential to predict the long-term reliability of materials and systems in emerging applications ranging from energy to health to next-generation sensors and electronics. Currently, measurements of fracture toughness and identification of associated atomistic mechanisms remain challenging. Herein, we report an integrated experimental–computational framework in which in-situ high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) measurements of the intrinsic fracture energy of monolayer MoS 2 and MoSe 2 are in good agreement with atomistic model predictions based on an accurately parameterized interatomic potential. Changes in crystalline structures at the crack tip and crack edges, as observed in in-situ HRTEM crack extension tests, are properly predicted. Such a good agreement is the result of including large deformation pathways and phase transitions in the parameterization of the inter-atomic potential. The established framework emerges as a robust approach to determine the predictive capabilities of molecular dynamics models employed in the screening of 2D materials, in the spirit of the materials genome initiative. Moreover, it enables device-level predictions with superior accuracy (e.g., fatigue lifetime predictions of electro- and opto-electronic nanodevices).

Zhang, Xu↗
DOE OSTI2025

Porosity, swelling, and composition evolution in high-burnup monolithic U-Mo fuel

The microstructural progression of very high-burnup (>8 × 10 21 fissions/cm 3 ) monolithic uranium-molybdenum (U-10wt.%Mo) was analyzed, providing crucial insights into the behavior of post-recrystallized nuclear fuel, where scant data exists. Three focused ion beam cuboids sourced from a fuel plate with varying local burnups of 8.86 × 10 21 , 9.05 × 10 21 , and 9.36 × 10 21 fissions/cm 3 were characterized. The porosity and composition of the samples were evaluated to characterize the evolution of the microstructure as a function of fission density and different locations on the fuel plate, while simultaneously isolating plate-specific parameters such as Zr diffusion barrier thickness, hot-isostatic-pressing conditions, enrichment, and reactor conditions. The porosity was segmented, and the three-dimensional distribution of the porosity was extrapolated from the two-dimensional segmentation. The composition was assessed and quantified using energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy areal mapping. The porosity fraction increased as a function of the burnup from 27.77±0.51, 35.12±1.54, and 37.71±0.44 % for 8.86 × 10 21 , 9.05 × 10 21 , and 9.36 × 10 21 fissions/cm 3 , respectively. When compared to literature, the porosity volume fraction plateaus at burnups greater than 6 × 10 21 fissions/cm 3 , while the pore size grows linearly as a function of fission density. The number of large pores increased in number density as a function of burnup, while the smallest pores (<0.3 µm) increased up to 9.05 × 10 21 fissions/cm 3 , followed by a decrease at 9.36 × 10 21 fissions/cm 3 . The delamination and cracking in the fuel plate propagated through an interconnected porosity sublayer identified ∼5 µm from the diffusion barrier. The local swelling of the specimens was within or near the prediction bounds of the Robinson-Williams model for local swelling. The fission products, strontium, barium, cerium, and cesium, precipitated into the pores, while neodymium accumulated adjacent to the pores. Furthermore, these findings have direct implications for the development of fuel performance codes and the accurate documentation of the microstructure evolution in high burnup U-Mo, thus enhancing the safety and efficiency of nuclear fuel usage.

11 - NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2023

Peridynamic elastic waves in two-dimensional unbounded domains: Construction of nonlocal Dirichlet-type absorbing boundary conditions

The focus of this paper is on application of peridynamics (PD) to propagation of elastic waves in unbounded domains. We construct absorbing boundary conditions (ABCs) derived from a semi-analytical solution of the PD governing equation at the exterior region. This solution is made up of a finite series of plane waves, as fundamental solutions (modes), which satisfy the PD dispersion relations. The modes are adjusted to transmit the energy from the interior region (near field) to the exterior region (far field). The corresponding unknown coefficients of the series are found in terms of the displacement field at a layer of points adjacent to the absorbing boundary. This is accomplished through a collocation procedure at subregions (clouds) around each absorbing point. The proposed ABCs offer appealing advantages, which facilitate their application to PD. They are of Dirichlet-type, hence their implementation is relatively simple as no derivatives of the field variables are required. They are constructed in the time and space domains and thus application of Fourier and Laplace transforms, cumbersome for nonlocal models, is not required. At the discrete level, the modes satisfy the same numerical dispersion relations of the near field, which makes the far-field solution compatible with that of the near field. We scrutinize the performance of the proposed ABCs through several examples. So our investigation shows that the proposed ABCs perform stably in time with an appropriate level of accuracy even in problems characterized by highly-dispersive propagating waves, including crack propagation in semi-unbounded brittle solids.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2025

Implementation of compound refractive lenses for large field-of-view x-ray phase-contrast imaging during hypervelocity impact experiments

Synchrotron x-ray phase-contrast imaging (XPCI) offers time-resolved visualization of dynamic compression phenomena, but its intrinsically small field-of-view (FOV) limits the time that key features remain in frame. A novel approach to enlarge the FOV is achieved by positioning a two-dimensional parabolic compound refractive lens (CRL) upstream of the sample to deliberately defocus the white beam. Ray-tracing simulations and XPCI measurements show that this CRL configuration can expand the beam by ∼50% vertically and ∼15% horizontally based on the full width at half-maximum of the beam. Implementing the CRL, however, attenuates the photon flux and lowers signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Task-based analysis using a calibration grid (30 μm dots) showed that both setups fail to consistently meet the Rose criterion (SNR ≥ 5) for features of this size in single-bunch imaging. Extrapolating the measured SNR Rose values suggests that the minimum consistently detectable feature lies closer to 30–40 μm for the standard XPCI setup and above 40 μm for CRL-XPCI. Despite this limitation, the CRL configuration nearly doubles the illuminated area, enabling simultaneous tracking of front and rear observations of boron carbide targets subjected to rod and sphere impacts at 1.0–2.6 km/s. Image tracking algorithms and photonic Doppler velocimetry were used to measure penetration and rear-surface velocity histories. Together, these measurements capture crack fronts, penetration, and material breakout, offering new benchmark data for validating high-strain-rate constitutive models of ceramic materials.

Ceramic materials↗