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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS2026

Development of a One-Domain Volume-Averaged Navier–Stokes Solver

The interaction between a high-enthalpy flow and a thermal protection material is inherently multiscale and multiphysics. In conventional aerothermal analyses, the external flow and material response are generally modeled using separate computational domains coupled through boundary conditions at the material surface. Although this approach has supported many practical applications, it requires assumptions about the location and behavior of the interface and may become difficult to apply when material decomposition, internal reactions, and surface recession substantially alter the porous structure. This report presents the development of a one-domain formulation in which the free-fluid and porous-material regions are represented within a single computational domain. The formulation is based on the volume-averaged Navier–Stokes (VANS) equations, derived from the governing equations for reacting, compressible flow and condensed material. Volume averaging transfers the influence of the unresolved material microstructure to the macroscale equations through effective transport properties, interfacial source terms, and dispersion fluxes. Particular attention is given to regions in which porosity and permeability vary rapidly, including the diffuse transition between a porous material and the surrounding fluid. The resulting equations are implemented in the Porous-material Analysis Toolbox based on OpenFOAM (PATO). The report describes the pressure–velocity coupling strategy used by the solver, examines spatial filtering techniques for deriving effective properties, and evaluates the influence of a smoothly varying interface permeability. Numerical demonstrations include canonical porous-flow configurations, a flow-tube configuration representative of FiberForm® permeability experiments, and the oxidation of a porous carbon material. The purpose of this work is to establish a mathematical and computational foundation for a unified treatment of flow and thermal protection material response. The present formulation is intended to support the progressive inclusion of additional physical processes, including multicomponent transport, finite-rate gas–surface chemistry, pyrolysis, internal oxidation, and material recession. It also provides a framework for connecting pore-scale simulations and microstructural characterization with macroscale aerothermal-response calculations. This report is intended for researchers and engineers working in computational fluid dynamics, porous-media transport, material response, and thermal protection system modeling. It documents both the theoretical development and the initial numerical assessment of the one-domain approach, while identifying the closure of effective and dispersion terms as an important subject for continued investigation.

Ablation↗

NASA NTRS1995

A Navier-Stokes Boundary Element Solver

Using global interpolation functions (GIF's) boundary element solutions are obtained for two-dimensional laminar flows. Two schemes are proposed for handling the convective terms. The first treats convection as a forcing function, and converts the flow equations to pseudo-Poisson equations. In the second scheme, some convective effect is incorporated into the fundamental solution used in constructing the pertinent integral equations. The lid-driven cavity flow is selected as the benchmark problem.

O Lafe↗

NASA NTRS1995

Turbulance Boundary Conditions for Shear Flow Analysis, Using the DTNS Flow Solver

The effects of different turbulence boundary conditions were examined for two classical flows: a turbulent plane free shear layer and a flat plate turbulent boundary layer with zero pressure gradient. The flow solver used was DTNS, an incompressible Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes solver with k-epsilon turbulence modeling, developed at the U.S. Navy David Taylor Research Center. Six different combinations of turbulence boundary conditions at the inflow boundary were investigated: In case 1, 'exact' k and epsilon profiles were used; in case 2, the 'exact' k profile was used, and epsilon was extrapolated upstream; in case 3, both k and epsilon were extrapolated; in case 4, the turbulence intensity (I) was 1 percent, and the turbulent viscosity (mu(sub t)) was equal to the laminar viscosity; in case 5, the 'exact' k profile was used and mu(sub t) was equal to the laminar viscosity; in case 6, the I was 1 percent, and epsilon was extrapolated. Comparisons were made with experimental data, direct numerical simulation results, or theoretical predictions as applicable. Results obtained with DTNS showed that turbulence boundary conditions can have significant impacts on the solutions, especially for the free shear layer.

M Mizukami↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Turbo-Design: Open-Source Radial Equilibrium Turbomachinery Solver: Part I - Turbines

Advances in 3D Geometrical Designs and Cooling have played a significant role in improving the efficiency of turbomachinery. However, these advancements must be effectively translated back to the modeler. Machine learning can facilitate this transition. Specifically, machine learning–based loss models can bridge the gap between 3D and 1D designs, enabling modelers not only to predict velocity triangles but also to extract additional geometric features. Currently, the design tools used at NASA have not been updated to support such integration—until now. TurboDesign is an open-source, Python-based framework that replaces TD2 (LEW-11029-1) and AXOD2 (LEW-16323-1), both of which are radial equilibrium solvers for axial turbines. The goal of this update is to enable the integration of machine learning loss models into radial equilibrium equations. Additionally, TurboDesign is designed to support radial machines. This paper presents the governing equations, the assumptions underlying the code, the integration of legacy loss models, an example of machine learning model integration, and a validation comparison with CFD. All code, tutorials, and documentation are available at: https://www.github.com/nasa/turbo-design

Radial Equilibrium↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Aerothermodynamic Analysis of a Flexible Thermal Protection System under Reentry Loads

The Carryall Block 1 reentry vehicle being developed by Outpost Space utilizes a strut supported semirigid deployable heatshield. This consists of a flexible thermal protection system, a heat-resistant fabric stack, stretched over actuated spars. The advantages of a deployable heatshield include reduced heat loading and earlier deceleration in the trajectory. However, the nature of the flexible thermal protection system necessitates considering the loaded shape of the heat shield. The flexible thermal protection system will deflect under reentry loads leading to areas of higher heating rates as well as a reduced axial coefficient as compared to the nominal shape. The Carryall Block 1 is analyzed using NASA’s FUN3D and DPLR CFD solvers with a deflected shape based on the catenary equations. The aerodynamic results are found to be within a percent for both solvers and both structured and unstructured mesh types. Fluid Structure Interaction (FSI) analysis is currently a work in progress, using file I/O to communicate between FUN3D and LS-DYNA, a commercial nonlinear structural solver. Challenges in deforming the geometry, mesh, and initial results are presented here.

thermal protection system↗

NASA NTRS2026

A Modular Conjugate Heat Transfer Optimization Framework for Thermal Management of Electric Aircraft

Conjugate heat transfer (CHT) analysis and optimization is a powerful method for improving thermal management, as it simultaneously resolves the temperature distribution in both fluid and solid domains. This paper presents a modular, discrete adjoint-based CHT optimization capability integrated within the OpenMDAO/MPhys framework. A unique feature of the proposed framework is its flexibility to extend to multidisciplinary optimization, including aero-structural-thermal applications. The fluid domain is modeled using a finite-volume Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) solver, and the solid domain with a conduction heat transfer solver. A mixed Neumann-Dirichlet boundary condition is developed to enable full submersion of the solid geometry within the fluid domain, while ensuring consistent temperature and heat flux coupling at the CHT interface. Gradient-based optimization is performed; the gradients are efficiently computed using the discrete adjoint solvers implemented in DAFoam. To demonstrate the method, this paper considers two cases related to electric aircraft thermal management: a U-bend heat exchanger and an actively cooled battery pack. The U-bend case aims to minimize pressure loss while maximizing heat flux by changing the pipe geometry. The optimized design reduces pressure loss by 52.7% and increases total heat flux by 2.3%. In the battery pack case, a 3-by-3 cell configuration is cooled by ambient airflow, with constant heat generation prescribed in the cells. The battery casing shape serves as the design variable, and the objective function is a weighted sum of pressure loss and pack weight, subject to a maximum temperature constraint. The optimized design achieves a 44.6% reduction in pressure loss and a 1.5% reduction in weight, while satisfying the thermal constraint. To ensure the reliability of the optimized designs, this study validates coarse-mesh, steady-state predictions against fine-mesh unsteady simulations, demonstrating consistency within acceptable errors. This work demonstrates the potential of the developed framework to enable rapid, high-fidelity design of thermal management systems for electric aircraft.

heat transfer↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

High-Order Methods in NASA’s Next Generation of Computational Fluid Dynamics Tools

The missions of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) routinely produce unique requirements and challenges for development and application of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) methods. NASA presently embodies four distinct Mission Directorates: Aeronautics Research, Exploration Systems, Science, and Space Operations. These missions generate requirements for systems that operate in a wide variety of environments. They range from the high-speed flight of aerodynamically optimized vehicles operating in the earth’s atmosphere to spacecraft designed for missions that don’t favor aerodynamic optimization, some operating in the atmosphere of planets and planetary moons such as Mars and Venus or Saturn’s moon Titan. Systems supporting these vehicles, such as rocket and jet propulsion, reaction control systems, fluid and thermal transfer systems, etc. can also generate their own unique set of flow phenomena that challenge today’s CFD methodology. Through the NASA Engineering and Safety Center (NESC), NASA annually conducts state-of-the-discipline assessments in fifteen distinct engineering disciplines. These assessments are performed by the NASA Technical Fellows that lead Technical Discipline Teams (TDT) of recognized experts in these fifteen areas. In the Aerosciences discipline, three topics have been identified as the top challenges for the discipline: aero-plume interaction prediction, unsteady separated flows, and aerothermodynamic prediction. These challenge areas are defined by the Agency’s high-risk projects and problems on which the NESC is requested to perform independent testing, analysis, and assessments. When viewed as a whole, these tests, analyses, and assessments provide a clear view of the recurring technical challenges facing Agency engineers and researchers and can be used to guide future research and technology development. The present state-of-the-art in the application of CFD at NASA is the use of Reynolds-Averaged Navier- Stokes (RANS) solvers, primarily executed in a steady-state mode of operation. In isolated cases, Unsteady RANS (URANS) solvers have been employed when steady RANS solutions produce poorly converging or oscillating results or in cases, such as aeroelastic analysis, which require unsteady aerodynamic simulation. For most traditional external and internal aerodynamic flows, structured overset grids or unstructured grids are employed to minimize geometric modeling and grid generation times. Grid adaptation, primarily as a series of coarse-grain intermediate processing steps is also seeing use on particularly complex flow problems and configurations. In the case of aerothermodynamic flows, engineers have been forced to continue to employ structured grid techniques as the present unstructured grid methodology has proven inadequate in the prediction of surface heating. In the area of aero-plume interaction modeling, two-gas, frozen chemistry simulation is generally the state-of-the- art, with some production solvers capable of predicting flows with only a single gas component. Prediction of flows falling into the afore-mentioned top Aerosciences technical challenges have severely stressed the present state-of-the-art in CFD prediction and for some problems, such as unsteady separated flows and aero-plume interaction cases, engineers have begun employing Large Eddy Simulation (LES) and Hybrid RANS/LES techniques. In some isolated aero-propulsion interaction cases, chemically reacting flow simulations have been applied. These methods are highly evolutionary and engineers have little experience in their application, so they cannot be heavily relied upon in today’s application environment. Therefore, this leads one to muse over which numerical technologies will be included in the CFD tools that will be employed 30 years in the future. This presentation will describe specific technical problems that have stressed NASA’s traditional CFD methods to their breaking point and will link these issues to the Agency’s top Aerosciences technical challenges. The discussion will then shift to the characteristics of future CFD solvers that will be required to attack these challenges and how these characteristics differ from the present state-of-the- art. High-order methods certainly appear to have a place in the development of future CFD tools and some of the physical characteristics of our most challenging problems suggest that high-order methods are the only way to effectively solve them. But there are some relatively severe implementation issues that face these methods, particularly in the area of general applicability and robust operation as an engineering tool. Desired characteristics of next-generation CFD solvers will be discussed and the author’s view of which emerging numerical technologies might be employed to address these attributes will also be presented

David M Schuster↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Aerothermal Shape Optimization of Actively-Cooled Battery Packs Using Conjugate Heat Transfer

Thermal management for battery is important for electric aircraft because battery temperature is critically important to vehicle safety, and it also has direct impact on the efficiency of the battery system. Because ambient air is a readily available resource for aircraft, this paper considers an active cooling concept with forced convection of ambient air through the battery pack. Conjugate heat transfer analysis is used to solve the coupled aero-thermal problem, which consists of a finite-volume computational fluid dynamics solver for the fluid domain, and a conduction heat transfer solver for the solid domain. A mixed Neumann and Dirichlet boundary condition is developed for the fluid-solid interface, which allows the solid domain to completely submerge in the fluid domain. A gradient-based optimization method is adopted, and the discrete adjoint approach implemented in DAFoam is used to efficiently compute the gradients. The aero-thermal coupling for primal analysis and gradient computation is handled using the OpenMDAO-based MPhys framework. A constant heat source is prescribed for the battery cells, and the battery shape (design variable) is optimized to minimize cooling pump power and battery weight (composite objective function) while keeping the battery temperature below a threshold (constraint). The optimized design achieves a 44.6% and 1.5% reduction in the cooling pump power and battery weight, respectively, and the maximal temperature constraint is satisfied. This work has the potential to reduce battery-pack weight, improve performance, and reduce the weight of thermal management systems for electric vertical take-off and landing aircraft.

heat transfer↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Aerothermal Shape Optimization of Actively-Cooled Battery Packs using Conjugate Heat Transfer

thermal management↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Boundary Layer Analysis of Shock Tube Flows

Shock tubes offer a controlled environment to reproduce kinetic and radiative phenomena characteristic of atmospheric entry flows under ground-test conditions. The boundary layer developing behind the incident shock wave determines the available test time, influences particle residence times important for similarity scaling, and can affect radiative energy transport. In this study, we couple a quasi-1D space marcher with the compressible boundary-layer equations to numerically compute the post-shock flow in a shock frame of reference for various test gas mixtures representative of different planetary atmospheres. The solvers are individually verified against CFD simulations and analytical correlations available in the literature. Coupled solutions are computed for a finite-rate chemistry in the boundary layer and a non-catalytic isothermal wall. Results yield refined estimates of the maximum separation distance, as well as insights into concentration profiles of relevant species within the boundary layer.

Andrea Fagnani↗

NASA NTRS1994

Summary of NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Systems Program activities

A summary of NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Systems Program Activities is presented. The NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Systems Program represents a unified NASA wide effort with the overall objective of providing NASA with the policy and posture which will increase the safety, performance, and reliability of space power systems. The specific objectives of the program are to: enhance cell/battery safety and reliability; maintain current battery technology; increase fundamental understanding of primary and secondary cells; provide a means to bring forth advanced technology for flight use; assist flight programs in minimizing battery technology related flight risks; and ensure that safe, reliable batteries are available for NASA's future missions.

Manzo, Michelle↗

NASA NTRS1990

NASA aerospace flight battery systems program

The major objective of the NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Systems Program is to provide NASA with the policy and posture to increase and ensure the safety, performance and reliability of batteries for space power systems. The program plan has been modified in the past year to reflect changes in the agency's approach to battery related problems that are affecting flight programs. Primary attention in the Battery Program is being devoted to the development of an advanced nickel-cadmium cell design and the qualification of vendors to produce cells for flight programs. As part of a unified Battery Program, the development of a nickel-hydrogen standard and primary cell issues are also being pursued to provide high performance NASA Standards and space qualified state-of-the-art primary cells. The resolution of issues is being addressed with the full participation of the aerospace battery community.

Manzo, Michelle A.↗

NASA NTRS1990

NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Systems Program

The major objective of the NASA Aerospace Flight Battery Systems Program is to provide NASA with the policy and posture to increase and ensure the safety, performance and reliability of batteries for space power systems. The program plan has been modified in the past year to reflect changes in the agency's approach to battery related problems that are affecting flight programs. Primary attention in the Battery Program is being devoted to the development of an advanced nickel-cadmium cell design and the qualification of vendors to produce cells for flight programs. As part of a unified Battery Program, the development of a nickel-hydrogen standard and primary cell issues are also being pursued to provide high-performance NASA Standards and space qualified state-of-the-art primary cells. The resolution of issues is being addressed with the full participation of the aerospace battery community.

Manzo, Michelle A.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Trajectory Engineering with Modular Patched Conics for Entry Systems and TPS (TEMPEST)

Brief Presenter Biography (35 word limit): Bohdan Wesely is an Aerospace Engineer in the Entry Systems and Technology Division at Ames. He has worked on a variety of projects for NASA including integrated TPS (thermal protection system) flight hardware deliveries and testing services for commercial partners. Introduction: TEMPEST is a new trajectory analysis framework that is designed to fill the gap between dedicated flight mechanics tools and aerothermal and TPS sizing tools. The project started as an SJSU master’s thesis and has since evolved into a general conceptual design tool capable of studying a wide variety of entry problems. Development is ongoing in the Entry Systems and Technology Division at NASA ARC. Why TEMPEST: Space missions involving entry into a planetary atmosphere involve a series of unique requirements across multiple disciplines. Whether it is traditional entry descent and landing (EDL), or aerocapture, the vehicle must navigate to its target landing location or orbit state, and the TPS must protect the payload during entry. The design process typically involves iterative handoffs between various flight mechanics, flow solver, and material response level tools. During the early conceptual phase, a wide variety of feasible trajectories are simulated in a Monte Carlo scenario which broadly satisfy the mission or landing requirements. Next, computational fluid dynamics (CFD), direct simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC), and other flow solver analyses are performed at various key trajectory points to generate an aero-database, heating and TPS design requirements also emerge at this stage. At this point, with updated aerodynamics from the various flow solvers, trajectories can be re-run, this in turn can change the required freestream conditions for the CFD tools, and as a project progresses, these analyses converge, and uncertainty is reduced. However, there is always a “hand-off” occurring between two inherently coupled phenomena. Analysis Description: One of the goals with TEMPEST is to use a variety of first principles estimation methods coupled with an atmosphere model to predict vehicle aerothermodynamics across the entire flight regime while propagating a 3 or 6 degree of freedom (DoF) trajectory. Aerodynamics methods include modified Newtonian, Maxwell and Cercignani- Lampis-Lord (CLL) for continuum, transitional, and free molecular flow regimes. Aerothermodynamics include boundary layer and reference enthalpy methods, and Mutation++ for non-equilibrium chemistry modeling. TEMPEST is also capable of stitching multiple trajectory segments together to study mission scenarios like multi-pass aerocapture and aero-gravity assists. Most of the program is implemented in MATLAB using modern system objects, it relies on several C++ shared libraries for supporting tools like Gmsh, the Global Reference Atmospheric Model (GRAM), and Mutation++. The various first principles aerothermal estimation methods are discretized across either a structured axisymmetric panel mesh or an unstructured tri-mesh generated from an open-source tool such as Gmsh, this allows solutions on the same mesh to be compared across tools such as CB-Aero. CFD Coupling. A physics-aware, gaussian process CFD anchoring scheme is proposed to adjust the various first principles methods as a CFD database is populated. One goal for this anchoring module is to inform the project where CFD should be run. Full knowledge of the entire trajectory, atmosphere, and aerothermodynamics allows for easier identification of high sensitivity areas and uncertainty quantification. While the first principles effects are well known and proven accurate in existing tools such as CB- Aero and Cart3D, a physics aware CFD anchoring scheme increases tool credibility across a project lifecycle. Material Response Modeling. Correct TPS sizing is critical for optimizing mass for science payloads and ensuring mission success. The process typically involves a thermal analysis along the trajectory with surface heating environments as a boundary condition. Several design constraints are maximum bondline temperature and maximum recession with various margining techniques. The material response tool FIAT, developed out of NASA Ames, is currently being integrated into the TEMPEST environment. TPS recession, shape change, mass loss, and mass property alteration are all factors that can perturb an entry trajectory. For missions like Mars 2020, recession was minimal and was safely handled separately as a post process. For missions such as Jupiter Galileo with a high TPS mass fraction or asteroid entries, recession plays a major role. The proposed fully coupled scheme is to use an epoch-based approach where the trajectory integration is halted after a recession threshold, the energy balance and FIAT are solved at each panel, the mesh, aerodynamics, and mass properties are updated, and the trajectory continues. Several computational tradeoffs have been made during the development of TEMPEST to limit the cost of a single trajectory and preserve its utility as a conceptual, rapid iteration tool. Conclusion: Development of TEMPEST is ongoing and the project is still in its infancy. This talk aims to showcase its unique capabilities to support future NASA entry systems missions.

Bohdan O Wesely↗

NASA NTRS1992

Microgravity Effects on Standardized Cognitive Performance Measures

The purpose of this experiment, selected to fly on the International Microgravity Laboratory (IML-2) Spacelab mission, is to determine the effects of microgravity upon the cognitive skills which are critical to successful performance of many tasks on board the Space Shuttle. Six tests from the Unified Tri-service Cognitive Performance Assessment Battery (UTC-PAB) will be administered to the Mission Specialists to fulfill the goals of this experiment. These tests are based upon current theoretical models of human performance and the hypothesized effects of microgravity. The principle objective is the identification of the effects of microgravity upon specific information processing skills affecting performance from those of fatigue and shifts in work/rest cycles. Multiple measures of both short and long term fatigue will be obtained and used as a major independent variable for the analysis of these performance data. Scientific supporting studies will determine optimum practice and performance testing schedules for the astronauts. The same tests will be used post-flight to collect data on the recovery of any cognitive performance impairment compared with pre-flight, baseline levels.

Samuel G Schiflett↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Softening the Gap between Wöhler and Paris – New Approaches for Fatigue Analysis –

Fatigue analysis tools can vary across industries. For example, automotive engineers often use the Wöhler (S-N) approach to design for safe-life, while aerospace engineers prioritize damage tolerance and inspection intervals, relying instead on crack growth models such as Paris’ law. Although both approaches may deal with the control of cracks in similar materials, their analysis tools and material characterizations are fundamentally distinct. This divide mirrors the classic split between stress-based strength analysis and linear elastic fracture mechanics. However, modern nonlinear models that incorporate material softening, such as cohesive laws, blur this boundary and capture fracture behaviors across scales. This presentation describes the CF23 fatigue model, which uses cohesive softening to link S-N crack initiation with crack propagation rates. CF23 spans the full fatigue spectrum, from initial propagation transients to steady-state growth and threshold conditions, offering a unified framework that bridges Wöhler and Paris-based methodologies. Example applications include fatigue crack propagation transients in adhesive interfaces and skin/stiffener separation.

cohesive elements↗

NASA NTRS2026

Equivalent System Mass Comparison of ECLSS CO2 Removal Technologies

This project employs equivalent system mass (ESM) analyses to evaluate and compare state-of-the-art spacecraft CO2 removal systems. The ESM methodology converts sizing characteristics such as volume, power, and cooling requirements into a unified metric of mass, allowing for simple quantitative comparison of equipment impacts on a system level. Comparison of six high TRL technologies – the Carbon Dioxide Removal System (CDRS), Thermal Amine Scrubber (TAS), Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly (CDRA), Four-Bed CO2 Scrubber (4BCO2), CO2 and Humidity Control Swing Bed (CHC), and the Carbon Dioxide Removal by Ionic Liquid Sorbent (CDRILS) – was achieved using an existing ESM spreadsheet tool that formerly ranked such technologies for consideration on Gateway. Fidelity of the tool was increased through revision with the most up-to-date sizing and performance data for each technology. ESM values were then estimated using NASA-supplied Lunar, Martian, and low-Earth orbit habitat infrastructure costs. This paper details the ESM approach used, lists major performance variables for each CO2 removal option, and summarizes conclusions of the technology comparison. The results are intended to act as a guide to assist programs in their selection of CO2 technologies best suited for a specific vehicle or mission.

Madeleine C Oliver↗

NASA NTRS2026

Equivalent System Mass Comparison of ECLSS CO 2 Removal Technologies

This project employs equivalent system mass (ESM) analyses to evaluate and compare state-of-the-art spacecraft CO 2 removal systems. The ESM methodology converts sizing characteristics such as volume, power, and cooling requirements into a unified metric of mass, allowing for simple quantitative comparison of equipment impacts on a system level. Comparison of six high TRL technologies – the Carbon Dioxide Removal System (CDRS), Thermal Amine Scrubber (TAS), Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly (CDRA), Four-Bed CO 2 Scrubber (4BCO2), CO 2 and Humidity Control Swing Bed (CHC), and the Carbon Dioxide Removal by Ionic Liquid Sorbent (CDRILS) – was achieved using an existing ESM spreadsheet tool that formerly ranked such technologies for consideration on Gateway. Fidelity of the tool was increased through revision with the most up-to-date sizing and performance data for each technology. ESM values were then estimated using NASA-supplied Lunar, Martian, and low-Earth orbit habitat infrastructure costs. This paper details the ESM approach used, lists major performance variables for each CO 2 removal option, and summarizes conclusions of the technology comparison. The results are intended to act as a guide to assist programs in their selection of CO 2 technologies best suited for a specific vehicle or mission.

Madeleine Oliver↗