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At least 19 records

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NASA NTRS2013

What Reliability Engineers Should Know about Space Radiation Effects

Space radiation in space systems present unique failure modes and considerations for reliability engineers. Radiation effects is not a one size fits all field. Threat conditions that must be addressed for a given mission depend on the mission orbital profile, the technologies of parts used in critical functions and on application considerations, such as supply voltages, temperature, duty cycle, and redundancy. In general, the threats that must be addressed are of two types-the cumulative degradation mechanisms of total ionizing dose (TID) and displacement damage (DD). and the prompt responses of components to ionizing particles (protons and heavy ions) falling under the heading of single-event effects. Generally degradation mechanisms behave like wear-out mechanisms on any active components in a system: Total Ionizing Dose (TID) and Displacement Damage: (1) TID affects all active devices over time. Devices can fail either because of parametric shifts that prevent the device from fulfilling its application or due to device failures where the device stops functioning altogether. Since this failure mode varies from part to part and lot to lot, lot qualification testing with sufficient statistics is vital. Displacement damage failures are caused by the displacement of semiconductor atoms from their lattice positions. As with TID, failures can be either parametric or catastrophic, although parametric degradation is more common for displacement damage. Lot testing is critical not just to assure proper device fi.mctionality throughout the mission. It can also suggest remediation strategies when a device fails. This paper will look at these effects on a variety of devices in a variety of applications. This paper will look at these effects on a variety of devices in a variety of applications. (2) On the NEAR mission a functional failure was traced to a PIN diode failure caused by TID induced high leakage currents. NEAR was able to recover from the failure by reversing the current of a nearby Thermal Electric Cooler (turning the TEC into a heater). The elevated temperature caused the PIN diode to anneal and the device to recover. It was by lot qualification testing that NEAR knew the diode would recover when annealed. This paper will look at these effects on a variety of devices in a variety of applications. Single Event Effects (SEE): (1) In contrast to TID and displacement damage, Single Event Effects (SEE) resemble random failures. SEE modes can range from changes in device logic (single-event upset, or SEU). temporary disturbances (single-event transient) to catastrophic effects such as the destructive SEE modes, single-event latchup (SEL). single-event gate rupture (SEGR) and single-event burnout (SEB) (2) The consequences of nondestructive SEE modes such as SEU and SET depend critically on their application--and may range from trivial nuisance errors to catastrophic loss of mission. It is critical not just to ensure that potentially susceptible devices are well characterized for their susceptibility, but also to work with design engineers to understand the implications of each error mode. -For destructive SEE, the predominant risk mitigation strategy is to avoid susceptible parts, or if that is not possible. to avoid conditions under which the part may be susceptible. Destructive SEE mechanisms are often not well understood, and testing is slow and expensive, making rate prediction very challenging. (3) Because the consequences of radiation failure and degradation modes depend so critically on the application as well as the component technology, it is essential that radiation, component. design and system engineers work togetherpreferably starting early in the program to ensure critical applications are addressed in time to optimize the probability of mission success.

DiBari, Rebecca↗

NASA NTRS1986

Reliability of photovoltaic modules

In order to assess the reliability of photovoltaic modules, four categories of known array failure and degradation mechanisms are discussed, and target reliability allocations have been developed within each category based on the available technology and the life-cycle-cost requirements of future large-scale terrestrial applications. Cell-level failure mechanisms associated with open-circuiting or short-circuiting of individual solar cells generally arise from cell cracking or the fatigue of cell-to-cell interconnects. Power degradation mechanisms considered include gradual power loss in cells, light-induced effects, and module optical degradation. Module-level failure mechanisms and life-limiting wear-out mechanisms are also explored.

Ross, R. G., Jr.↗

DOE OSTI2020

Activation Energy for End-of-Life Solder Bond Degradation: Thermal Cycling of Field-Aged PV Modules

The longevity of solar photovoltaic modules depends on the durability and reliability of their components, one of which is the solder bonds in interconnect ribbons. The solder joints experience stresses from thermal cycling and constant elevated temperatures (40 °C-70 °C) in regular field operation leading to thermo-mechanical fatigue and intermetallic compound formation. To study the end-of-life wear-out mechanisms and to obtain activation energy of solder bond degradation, here two field-aged modules from Arizona-a 21-year-old Solarex MSX60 module (with Sn62Pb36Ag2 at the solder joints) and an 18-year-old Siemens M55 module (with Sn60Pb40 at the solder joints)-underwent 800 and 400 modified thermal cycles, respectively. Using three heating blankets, each module had three temperature zones maintained at 85, 95, and 105 °C during the 15-min hot dwell time of the thermal cycle. Cell-level series resistance data obtained from three temperature zones enabled the calculation of activation energy for solder bond degradation for the MSX60 and the M55 modules to be 0.12 eV and 0.35 eV, respectively. From each temperature zone in both modules, busbar-solder samples were obtained, imaged through SEM, and analyzed with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. In the MSX60 module with traces of Ag in the solder material, phase segregation and growth were primarily observed at high temperatures. For M55 modules without Ag in the solder material, major phase segregation was observed in all temperature zones. The IMC thickness for both modules increased with increasing module temperature. The beneficial effect of Ag in solder material on mitigating solder bond degradation is presented.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2016

Spark Plasma Sintering of Ultracapacitors

A solid-state ultracapacitor module to replace standard electrochemical batteries would achieve major performance gains and mass/volume reduction. This report summarizes a project to evaluate an alternative sintering process to produce a solid-state ultracapacitor to overcome the limitations of both the electrochemical batteries presently in use on spacecraft and of currently available electrochemical ultracapacitors. It will provide a robust energy storage device with higher reliability, wider working temperature range, longer lifetime, and less weight and volume than electrochemical batteries. As modern electronics decrease in size, more efficient and robust remote power is needed. Current state-of-the-art rechargeable batteries cannot be rapidly charged, contain harmful chemicals, and suffer from early wear-out mechanisms. Solid-state ultracapacitors are recyclable energy storage devices that offer the promise of higher power and a greater number of charge/discharge cycles than current rechargeable batteries. In addition, the theoretical energy density when compared to current electrochemical batteries indicates that a significant weight savings is possible. This is a project to develop a very high density solid-state ultracapacitor with giant permittivity and acceptable dielectric loss to overcome the energy-density barrier such that it will be a suitable replacement for batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

NASA NTRS1978

Test and evaluation of bubble memories

A description is presented of a test program which has shown that well-constructed bubble memories can operate reliably over long periods of time and at low error rates. Even the relatively high error rate of one memory during burn-in can be considered acceptable if compared with tape recorder standards. No wear-out mechanism or aging could be detected. Bubble memories are now considered suitable for long-duration space missions and certainly are suitable for many military and commercial applications. It must be recognized, however, that bubble memories are complex devices and not yet fully understood. While the particular memory tested may never find practical applications, it nevertheless has provided insight into performance characteristics considered typical of bubble memories.

Bahm, E.↗

NASA NTRS1979

Primary Electric Propulsion Technology Study

An investigation of the 30-cm engineering-model-thruster technology with emphasis placed on the development of models for understanding and predicting the operational characteristics and wear-out mechanisms of the thruster as a function of operating or design parameters is presented. The task studies include: (1) the wear mechanisms and wear rates that determine the useful lifetime of the thruster discharge chamber; (2) cathode lifetime as determined by the depletion of barium from the barium-aluminate-impregnated-porous-tungsten insert that serves as a barium reservoir; (3) accelerator-grid-system technology; (4) a verification of the high-voltage propellant-flow-electrical-isolator design developed under NASA contract NAS3-20395 for operation at 10-kV applied voltage and 10-A equivalent propellant flow with mercury and argon propellants. A model was formulated for predicting performance.

Poeschel, R. L.↗

NASA NTRS2015

Solid State Ultracapacitor

NASA analyzes, tests, packages, and fabricates electrical, electronic, and electromechanical (EEE) parts used in space vehicles. One area that NASA wishes to advance is energy storage and delivery. Currently, space vehicles use rechargeable batteries that utilize silver zinc or lithium ion electrochemical processes. These current state-of-the-art rechargeable batteries cannot be rapidly charged, contain harmful chemicals, and suffer from early wear-out mechanisms. A solid state ultracapacitor is an EEE part that offers significant advantages over current electrochemical and electrolytic devices. The objective of this research is to develop an internal barrier layer ultracapacitor (IBLC) using novel dielectric materials as a battery replacement with a focus on these advantages: longer life, lower mass-toweight ratio, rapid charging, on-demand pulse power, improved on-pad standby time without maintenance, and environmental friendliness. The approach is unique in two areas. A deposition technique is used that has been shown to produce a more uniformly coated nanoparticle than sol-gel, which has resulted in colossal permittivities. These particles are then distributed in an ink formulation developed at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) and deposited utilizing a 3D aerosol jet technique. This additive manufacturing technique controls layer thickness, resulting in extremely large capacitance and energy density.

Rolin, Terry D.↗

DOE OSTI2018

Correlation of Qualification and Accelerated Testing with Field Degradation

Qualification testing of solar photovoltaic (PV) modules per IEC 61215 standard encompasses a set of well-defined accelerated stress tests (irradiation, environmental, mechanical and electrical) with strict pass/fail criteria based on functionality/performance, electrical and mechanical safety, and visual requirements. The qualification testing does not identify all the possible reliability failures or durability issues witnessed in the actual field. However, it does identify the major/catastrophic design quality issues (infant mortality), which could occur early in a module’s field life. Unfortunately, in the industry, there is no consensus-based standard or protocol available to validate manufacturers’ warranty period claims based on the end-of-life wear-out failure mechanisms. Being able to predict the field degradation rates and lifetime using mode-specific accelerated tests on moderately field-aged modules, for example 10 years, for certain commonly occurring degradation modes would be a powerful contribution to all the stakeholders of the PV industry. There is a need to formulate guidelines to find the correlation of accelerated testing with field degradation for individual degradation modes observed in the field. Potential approaches to fulfill this need were experimented in this project and are presented in this report. Two of the most commonly seen degradation modes – encapsulant browning and solder bond thermomechanical fatigue – are addressed in this report through presenting the accelerated testing methods and physical modelling approaches. Two accelerated test methods (UV and thermal cycling) were designed to induce the wear-out mechanisms in the modules and not infant mortality failures. To focus on the wear-out failure modes, the tests were performed on field-aged modules, instead of fresh modules, with known degradation rates and degradation modes. The degradation rates were measured based on the degradation rates of individual cell parameters (short-circuit current, I sc and series resistance, R s ) instead of the degradation rate of maximum power (P max ) which cannot be used to study any specific/limited degradation mode as the P max degradation could be caused by many different degradation modes. The key characteristic parameter considered for encapsulant discoloration and solder bond degradation is I sc and R s , respectively. The developed physical models/equations relating the testing degradation data and field weather data were utilized to determine the acceleration factor (AF) and to predict the degradation rate for a specific degradation mode of PV modules installed in two different climates, Arizona (hot) and New York (cold). The predicted degradation rates for encapsulant browning and solder bond degradation have also been validated against the actual measured field degradation rates. UV testing cost reduction: To determine acceleration factor, single UV chamber was used for accelerated UV testing at three different temperatures simultaneously, instead of three chambers for three temperatures (or one chamber sequentially which is an extremely time-consuming approach). A passive heating approach was successfully used to achieve and maintain multiple temperatures in the accelerated UV chamber. Foam insulation boards of varying thicknesses were utilized to obtain three different temperatures for UV testing. However, these foam materials tend to disintegrate in the presence of moisture. To alleviate this problem, silicone heating blankets with temperature controls and humidifier can be used if the UV testing is to be performed under hot-humid conditions instead of conventional hot-dry conditions. Thermal cycling testing cost reduction: Single thermal cycling chamber was used for accelerated thermal cycling testing at three different upper temperatures simultaneously, instead of three chambers for three upper temperatures (or one chamber sequentially which is an extremely time-consuming approach). An active heating approach based on silicone heating blankets was successfully used to achieve and maintain multiple upper temperatures in the accelerated thermal cycling chamber. Such blankets provide stable temperature control and thereby more reliable and repeatable for replicate experiments.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Prediction of Climate-Specific Degradation Rate for Photovoltaic Encapsulant Discoloration

Encapsulant discoloration is a well-known field degradation mode of crystalline-silicon photovoltaic modules, particularly in the hot climate zones. The discoloration rate is influenced by several weathering factors, such as UV light, module temperature, and humidity, as well as the permeability of oxygen into the module. Here, a rate dependence model employing the modified Arrhenius equations to predict the degradation rate for encapsulant discoloration in different climates is presented. Two modeling approaches are introduced, which utilize the field and accelerated UV testing degradation data in conjunction with the field meteorological data to determine the acceleration factor for encapsulant browning. A novel method of accelerated UV stress testing at three simultaneous module temperatures in a single environmental chamber test run is implemented to estimate the activation energy for browning. The test was performed on three field-retrieved modules to capture the wear-out failure mechanism. The degradation in short-circuit current Isc rather than maximum power is used as a decisive parameter for the discoloration analysis. Furthermore, the developed model has been used to predict the Isc degradation rate for the Arizona field characterized by a hot and dry climate and is validated against the field-measured value. It has also been applied to other climate types, e.g., the cold and dry climate of New York.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

NASA NTRS2006

Comparison of NASA's 30-cm Ion Thruster Capabilities with the Dawn Mission Requirements

The Dawn ion thrusters meet all of the performance and life requirements for the Dawn mission. FT001 has two magnets in sideways in the middle magnet ring, but this has only a minor impact on the thruster performance. Electron-backstreaming is the first wear-out failure mechanism for the Dawn ion thrusters - PFA Modeling Indicates: a) The mission cannot be completed with a single thruster; b) The probability for mission success based on accelerator grid wear is > 99% for the worst case thruster usage for nominal thruster beamlet profiles; and c) FT002 has the most peaked beam profile which impacts the thruster s throughput capability. PFA results indicate that this reduces the probability for mission success based on accelerator grid wear to 97% based on the worst case thruster usage. The wear-out probability is zero if all three thrusters are used during the mission.

ion thrusters↗

NASA NTRS2021

Acceleration Factors for Reliability Assessment of Polymer Tantalum Capacitors

Using polymer tantalum capacitors in Hi-Rel systems requires an assessment of the reliability characteristics of the parts. For this assessment, tantalum capacitors are typically subjected to reliability testing at temperatures and voltages exceeding their specified values, and the failure rate (FR) — or the probability of failure during use conditions — is calculated based on voltage and temperature acceleration factors. In this work, various types and lots of polymer tantalum capacitors have been tested at highly accelerated life test (HALT) conditions and the acceleration factors have been determined using different techniques. It has been shown that the behavior of capacitors under HALT conditions can be described based on the time-dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) model, which explains the presence of infant mortality (IM) and wear-out failures using the same failure mechanisms and allows for an assessment of the acceleration factors. The difference in acceleration factors obtained using exponential and power models is discussed. Analysis shows that with proper derating, screening, and qualification testing, the reliability of frameless Hi-Rel COTS polymer tantalum capacitors is adequate for space missions.

Alex Eidelman↗

NASA NTRS2021

Acceleration Factors for Reliability Assessment of Polymer Tantalum Capacitors

Alex Eidelman↗

DOE OSTI2023

Ribbons Affect Movement of Cracked Solar Cells [Poster]

Cracking of crystalline silicon photovoltaic cells remains a challenging topic in accurately assessing the long-term reliability and performance of affected modules. Cells can be damaged in every stage throughout the lifetime of a photovoltaic module, ranging from manufacturing, transportation, and installation to operation. Initially, the metallization can be able to bridge the gap of fractured cells and keep individual cell fragments electrically connected. However, photovoltaic modules and cells experience thermo-mechanical stresses during operation from temperature changes and pressure cycles of wind and snow loads. This causes the cell fragments to move, which, in turn, can lead to the wear out of the metallization and, consequently, to power loss or a safety hazard. The rate at which this degradation mechanism proceeds is currently unknown. Hence, in this work, we quantify the cell fragment movement of polycrystalline and monocrystalline mini-modules. By using digital image correlation, we were able to extract the normal crack opening and tangential sliding distances of adjacent cell fragments during heating of the mini-modules. Those distances are essential to develop wear-out models for the metallization and determine the rate of the degradation mechanism. We found that the interconnect technology has a significant impact on the direction and quantity of the cell fragment movements.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Infant Mortality and Wear-Out Failures in Polymer and MnO2 Tantalum Capacitors

Reliability testing of modern tantalum capacitors shows the presence of both types, infant mortality (IM) and wearout (WO) failures. To assure reliable operation, the probability of IM failures should be reduced to below the specified level, and the time of WO inception should be greater than the required useful life of the parts at operation conditions. In this work, several types of MnO2 and polymer cathode tantalum capacitors have been tested at highly accelerated conditions to assess voltage acceleration factors, determine adequate burn-in conditions, and assess the useful life. A modified time dependent dielectric breakdown (TDDB) model has been suggested to explain both types of failure, and a physical mechanism of degradation that is based on migration and reactions of oxygen vacancies explains increase of the defect related, IM failures with the level of stress.

tantalum capacitors↗

DOE OSTI2021

The number of catalytic cycles in an enzyme’s lifetime and why it matters to metabolic engineering

Metabolic engineering uses enzymes as parts to build biosystems for specified tasks. Although a part’s working life and failure modes are key engineering performance indicators, this is not yet so in metabolic engineering because it is not known how long enzymes remain functional in vivo or whether cumulative deterioration (wear-out), sudden random failure, or other causes drive replacement. Consequently, enzymes cannot be engineered to extend life and cut the high energy costs of replacement. Guided by catalyst engineering, we adopted catalytic cycles until replacement (CCR) as a metric for enzyme functional life span in vivo. CCR is the number of catalytic cycles that an enzyme mediates in vivo before failure or replacement, i.e., metabolic flux rate/protein turnover rate. We used estimated fluxes and measured protein turnover rates to calculate CCRs for ~100–200 enzymes each from Lactococcus lactis, yeast, and Arabidopsis. CCRs in these organisms had similar ranges (<10 3 to >10 7 ) but different median values (3–4 × 10 4 in L. lactis and yeast versus 4 × 10 5 in Arabidopsis). In all organisms, enzymes whose substrates, products, or mechanisms can attack reactive amino acid residues had significantly lower median CCR values than other enzymes. Taken with literature on mechanism-based inactivation, the latter finding supports the proposal that 1) random active-site damage by reaction chemistry is an important cause of enzyme failure, and 2) reactive noncatalytic residues in the active-site region are likely contributors to damage susceptibility. Enzyme engineering to raise CCRs and lower replacement costs may thus be both beneficial and feasible.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2019

Improving Solar PV Degradation Prediction Certainty: PREDICTS2 (Final Technical Report)

The rate and type of in-service PV performance degradation vary for different module designs, vintages, and operating climates. The current IEC 61215 module qualification testing standard can be used to identify design and manufacturing flaws that may lead to early life failures, but it was not intended to accurately predict degradation rates in the first 5 to 10 years of a PV plant’s lifetime, nor long-term performance, under varied operating conditions. Correlations between accelerated aging data and real-world degradation data are needed to better predict wear-out degradation in response to environmental stressors, such as elevated temperature, temperature cycling, moisture, wind load, and solar radiation. The PREDICTS2 project aged 36 pristine-condition ‘spare’ modules from a commercial PV power plant in the U.S. Southwest using the IEC 61215 and Qualification Plus (Qual Plus) testing standards. The study is unique in its ability to compare performance degradation data for fielded modules operating outdoors for 6 years in a commercial plant environmental with degradation data for modules of the same make, model and vintage that have been aged artificially in an indoor laboratory. Changes in individual module current-voltage (I-V) curve data were measured before and after the artificial aging process and compared to I-V curve data for the fielded modules. This project advanced the industry’s understanding of how environmental stressors affect performance degradation and established relationships between degradation mechanisms and changes to module electrical parameters and power loss. Improved certainty in degradation rates is expected to be the greatest source of LCOE reduction resulting from this project. Reducing the spread in the degradation rate probability distribution lowers project risk, which translates to lower project financing costs.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2023

Residual Stresses Affect Cell Fragment Movement

Predictive modeling tools such as the finite element method can be of tremendous help in assessing the reliability and long-term performance of photovoltaic modules. In order to obtain accurate results, the proper modeling of materials and manufacturing processes are of utmost importance. Module fabrication introduces thermo-mechanical stresses inside the module laminate, which need to be accounted for as residual stresses in finite element simulations. We found that cell fragment movement and crack opening displacements of fractured silicon cells within modules are affected by those residual stresses. Cell cracking remains a challenging topic in assessing the reliability and durability of damaged modules. Hence, accurately quantifying the separation and movement between cell fragments creates the foundation for establishing reliable lifetime and performance assessments of fractured silicon modules. Here, we present a modeling approach that uses upper and lower bounds to accurately account for the residual stresses introduced by the module lamination process. We designed a four-point flexure coupon test of a laminated, fractured silicon strip to validate our numerical results and found good agreement between our modeling methodology and the experimental data. Finally, we discuss the implications of the residual stresses on the normal crack opening and metallization wear-out of fractured silicon cells.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2018

Predicting Polymer Degradation and Mechanical Property Changes for Combined Radiation-Thermal Aging Environments

Here, a new approach is presented for conducting and extrapolating combined environment (radiation plus thermal) accelerated aging experiments. The method involves a novel way of applying the time-temperature-dose rate (t-T-R) approach derived many years ago, which assumes that by simultaneously accelerating the thermal-initiation rate (from Arrhenius T-only analysis) and the radiation dose rate R by the same factor x, the overall degradation rate will increase by the factor x. The dose rate assumption implies that equal dose yields equal damage, which is equivalent to assuming the absence of dose-rate effects (DRE). A plot of inverse absolute temperature versus the log of the dose rate is used to indicate experimental conditions consistent with the model assumptions, which can be derived along lines encompassing so-called matched accelerated conditions (MAC lines). Aging trends taken along MAC lines for several elastomers confirms the underlying model assumption and therefore indicates, contrary to many past published results, that DRE are typically not present. In addition, the MAC approach easily accommodates the observation that substantial degradation chemistry changes occur as aging conditions transition R-T space from radiation domination (high R, low T) to temperature domination (low R, high T). The MAC-line approach also suggests an avenue for gaining more confidence in extrapolations of accelerated MAC-line data to ambient aging conditions by using ultrasensitive oxygen consumption (UOC) measurements taken along the MAC line both under the accelerated conditions and at ambient. From UOC data generated under combined R-T conditions, this approach is tested and quantitatively confirmed for one of the materials. In analogy to the wear-out approach developed previously for thermo-oxidative aging, the MAC-line concept can also be used to predict the remaining lifetimes of samples extracted periodically from ambient environments.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗