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At least 19 records

NASA's Participation in the National Computational Grid

Over the last several years it has become evident that the character of NASA's supercomputing needs has changed. One of the major missions of the agency is to support the design and manufacture of aero- and space-vehicles with technologies that will significantly reduce their cost. It is becoming clear that improvements in the process of aerospace design and manufacturing will require a high performance information infrastructure that allows geographically dispersed teams to draw upon resources that are broader than traditional supercomputing. A computational grid draws together our information resources into one system. We can foresee the time when a Grid will allow engineers and scientists to use the tools of supercomputers, databases and on line experimental devices in a virtual environment to collaborate with distant colleagues. The concept of a computational grid has been spoken of for many years, but several events in recent times are conspiring to allow us to actually build one. In late 1997 the National Science Foundation initiated the Partnerships for Advanced Computational Infrastructure (PACI) which is built around the idea of distributed high performance computing. The Alliance lead, by the National Computational Science Alliance (NCSA), and the National Partnership for Advanced Computational Infrastructure (NPACI), lead by the San Diego Supercomputing Center, have been instrumental in drawing together the "Grid Community" to identify the technology bottlenecks and propose a research agenda to address them. During the same period NASA has begun to reformulate parts of two major high performance computing research programs to concentrate on distributed high performance computing and has banded together with the PACI centers to address the research agenda in common.

Feiereisen, William J.

A Simple XML Producer-Consumer Protocol

There are many different projects from government, academia, and industry that provide services for delivering events in distributed environments. The problem with these event services is that they are not general enough to support all uses and they speak different protocols so that they cannot interoperate. We require such interoperability when we, for example, wish to analyze the performance of an application in a distributed environment. Such an analysis might require performance information from the application, computer systems, networks, and scientific instruments. In this work we propose and evaluate a standard XML-based protocol for the transmission of events in distributed systems. One recent trend in government and academic research is the development and deployment of computational grids. Computational grids are large-scale distributed systems that typically consist of high-performance compute, storage, and networking resources. Examples of such computational grids are the DOE Science Grid, the NASA Information Power Grid (IPG), and the NSF Partnerships for Advanced Computing Infrastructure (PACIs). The major effort to deploy these grids is in the area of developing the software services to allow users to execute applications on these large and diverse sets of resources. These services include security, execution of remote applications, managing remote data, access to information about resources and services, and so on. There are several toolkits for providing these services such as Globus, Legion, and Condor. As part of these efforts to develop computational grids, the Global Grid Forum is working to standardize the protocols and APIs used by various grid services. This standardization will allow interoperability between the client and server software of the toolkits that are providing the grid services. The goal of the Performance Working Group of the Grid Forum is to standardize protocols and representations related to the storage and distribution of performance data. These standard protocols and representations must support tasks such as profiling parallel applications, monitoring the status of computers and networks, and monitoring the performance of services provided by a computational grid. This paper describes a proposed protocol and data representation for the exchange of events in a distributed system. The protocol exchanges messages formatted in XML and it can be layered atop any low-level communication protocol such as TCP or UDP Further, we describe Java and C++ implementations of this protocol and discuss their performance. The next section will provide some further background information. Section 3 describes the main communication patterns of our protocol. Section 4 describes how we represent events and related information using XML. Section 5 describes our protocol and Section 6 discusses the performance of two implementations of the protocol. Finally, an appendix provides the XML Schema definition of our protocol and event information.

Smith, Warren

Near Real-Time Flood Monitoring and Impact Assessment Systems

Floods are the costliest natural disaster, causing approximately 6.8 million deaths in the twentieth century alone. Worldwide economic flood damage estimates in 2012 exceed $19 Billion USD. Extended duration floods also pose longer term threats to food security, water, sanitation, hygiene, and community livelihoods, particularly in developing countries. Projections by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) suggest that precipitation extremes, rainfall intensity, storm intensity, and variability are increasing due to climate change. Increasing hydrologic uncertainty will likely lead to unprecedented extreme flood events. As such, there is a vital need to enhance and further develop traditional techniques used to rapidly assess flooding and extend analytical methods to estimate impacted population and infrastructure. Measuring flood extent in situ is generally impractical, time consuming, and can be inaccurate. Remotely sensed imagery acquired from space-borne and airborne sensors provides a viable platform for consistent and rapid wall-to-wall monitoring of large flood events through time. Terabytes of freely available satellite imagery are made available online each day by NASA, ESA, and other international space research institutions. Advances in cloud computing and data storage technologies allow researchers to leverage these satellite data and apply analytical methods at scale. Repeat-survey earth observations help provide insight about how natural phenomena change through time, including the progression and recession of floodwaters. In recent years, cloud-penetrating radar remote sensing techniques (e.g., Synthetic Aperture Radar) and high temporal resolution imagery platforms (e.g., MODIS and its 1-day return period), along with high performance computing infrastructure, have enabled significant advances in software systems that provide flood warning, assessments, and hazard reduction potential. By incorporating social and economic data, researchers can develop systems that automatically quantify the socioeconomic impacts resulting from flood disaster events.

Ahamed, Aakash

Infrastructure for Training and Partnershipes: California Water and Coastal Ocean Resources

The purpose of this project was to advance the existing ICESS/Bren School computing infrastructure to allow scientists, students, and research trainees the opportunity to interact with environmental data and simulations in near-real time. Improvements made with the funding from this project have helped to strengthen the research efforts within both units, fostered graduate research training, and helped fortify partnerships with government and industry. With this funding, we were able to expand our computational environment in which computer resources, software, and data sets are shared by ICESS/Bren School faculty researchers in all areas of Earth system science. All of the graduate and undergraduate students associated with the Donald Bren School of Environmental Science and Management and the Institute for Computational Earth System Science have benefited from the infrastructure upgrades accomplished by this project. Additionally, the upgrades fostered a significant number of research projects (attached is a list of the projects that benefited from the upgrades). As originally proposed, funding for this project provided the following infrastructure upgrades: 1) a modem file management system capable of interoperating UNIX and NT file systems that can scale to 6.7 TB, 2) a Qualstar 40-slot tape library with two AIT tape drives and Legato Networker backup/archive software, 3) previously unavailable import/export capability for data sets on Zip, Jaz, DAT, 8mm, CD, and DLT media in addition to a 622Mb/s Internet 2 connection, 4) network switches capable of 100 Mbps to 128 desktop workstations, 5) Portable Batch System (PBS) computational task scheduler, and vi) two Compaq/Digital Alpha XP1000 compute servers each with 1.5 GB of RAM along with an SGI Origin 2000 (purchased partially using funds from this project along with funding from various other sources) to be used for very large computations, as required for simulation of mesoscale meteorology or climate.

Siegel, David A.

Workforce for the Future Development of Space Access Vehicles

The development of advanced vehicles that will travel between planetary surfaces with atmospheres and space requires the availability of experimental and computational capabilities that accomplish the research leading to new technologies and the development, test, and evaluation (RDT&E) of new flight systems. The United States is at risk of not having the required RDT&E workforce – qualified and in sufficient numbers – in place and ready to meet the future market’s commercial and defense needs. Systemic challenges include uncertain Federal budgets that limit and interrupt government research and development, the projectized nature of new space access systems that drive boom/bust cycles, an aging aerospace workforce (compounded by a mid-age demographic gap), limited to declining investment in sustaining and advancing experimental and computational tools infrastructure, lack of standards for sharing (and leveraging) data, dramatically changing technologies, changing social norms, and potentially large increases in commercial market needs. Flight systems have mission-based trajectories to and from space and designers must ensure risk is properly assessed across the entire trajectory. Thus, physics questions must be answered at each stage of flight, which requires a suite of experimental and computational tools. The RDT&E workforce utilizing these tools include subject matter experts from the producers, interested in acquiring data and information on the product, and from the capabilities being utilized, interested in addressing the product customer’s needs (providing robust data collection techniques, data quality, timeliness – available when needed, efficient with cost management, and teaming on data analysis). This requires a range of skills – in addition to aerospace, other engineers, and software developers, a highly trained and certified craft and technician workforce is critical to future success. This paper will present a human resources construct that addresses the system of needs for people – including, but more than just technical skills and an application of that construct in the hypersonic Test and Evaluation (T&E) community. This is part of a larger AIAA effort to document challenges and associated best practices for the aerospace RDT&E workforce.

Steven C Dunn

The Computing and Data Grid Approach: Infrastructure for Distributed Science Applications

With the advent of Grids - infrastructure for using and managing widely distributed computing and data resources in the science environment - there is now an opportunity to provide a standard, large-scale, computing, data, instrument, and collaboration environment for science that spans many different projects and provides the required infrastructure and services in a relatively uniform and supportable way. Grid technology has evolved over the past several years to provide the services and infrastructure needed for building 'virtual' systems and organizations. We argue that Grid technology provides an excellent basis for the creation of the integrated environments that can combine the resources needed to support the large- scale science projects located at multiple laboratories and universities. We present some science case studies that indicate that a paradigm shift in the process of science will come about as a result of Grids providing transparent and secure access to advanced and integrated information and technologies infrastructure: powerful computing systems, large-scale data archives, scientific instruments, and collaboration tools. These changes will be in the form of services that can be integrated with the user's work environment, and that enable uniform and highly capable access to these computers, data, and instruments, regardless of the location or exact nature of these resources. These services will integrate transient-use resources like computing systems, scientific instruments, and data caches (e.g., as they are needed to perform a simulation or analyze data from a single experiment); persistent-use resources. such as databases, data catalogues, and archives, and; collaborators, whose involvement will continue for the lifetime of a project or longer. While we largely address large-scale science in this paper, Grids, particularly when combined with Web Services, will address a broad spectrum of science scenarios. both large and small scale.

Johnston, William E.

Advanced Computing Support at NASA Advanced Supercomputing (NAS) Division

NAS (NASA Advanced Supercomputing) Division: Advanced Computing: High-End Computing Capability (HECC) Project; Quantum Artificial Intelligence Lab (QuAIL); NASA Earth Exchange (NEX); Data Analytics Infrastructure for NASA; Cloud Services for Science & Engineering Projects.

Advanced Computing

Distributed Quantum Processing via Integrated Regional Quantum Networks Using Free-Space Optical Links

The landscape for quantum computing is rapidly evolving with the development of quantum computers and the emergence of future science enabling applications being pursued in many areas, such as distributed quantum computing, hybrid computing scenarios that require cooperatively networked quantum and classical computing assets and more. Quantum networking is also advancing with multiple regional quantum networks and testbeds maturing across the nation. These quantum networking testbeds typically include multiple access points with a heterogeneous mixture of capabilities interconnected by fiber spanning anywhere from tens to hundreds of kilometers; many such networks incorporate a classical networking framework. Alongside these connectivity advancements in the infrastructure, there is quantum sensing device and component technology maturation that is serving to expand the body of quantum networking scenarios that are presently possible and redefining the quantum- enabled future. Bridging the present collective progress in quantum computing and quantum networking will enable the next era of purposeful advancements for national priority use-cases for the benefit of science. One such use-case is enabling future quantum computing applications via integrated regional quantum networking infrastructure in neighboring locations like New York and Maryland, both states are home to robust classical and quantum networking capabilities. To enable near-term distributed quantum computing applications via the practical integration of regional quantum networking infrastructure, free-space optical links via satellite communications will be essential to avoid the exponential loss commonly observed with fiber implementations. There is both an urgent need and a practical justification for pursuing such space-based integration scope now.

Harry Shaw

The Advanced Technology Operations System: ATOS

Mission control systems supporting new space missions face ever-increasing requirements in terms of functionality, performance, reliability and efficiency. Modern data processing technology is providing the means to meet these requirements in new systems under development. During the past few years the European Space Operations Centre (ESOC) of the European Space Agency (ESA) has carried out a number of projects to demonstrate the feasibility of using advanced software technology, in particular, knowledge based systems, to support mission operations. A number of advances must be achieved before these techniques can be moved towards operational use in future missions, namely, integration of the applications into a single system framework and generalization of the applications so that they are mission independent. In order to achieve this goal, ESA initiated the Advanced Technology Operations System (ATOS) program, which will develop the infrastructure to support advanced software technology in mission operations, and provide applications modules to initially support: Mission Preparation, Mission Planning, Computer Assisted Operations, and Advanced Training. The first phase of the ATOS program is tasked with the goal of designing and prototyping the necessary system infrastructure to support the rest of the program. The major components of the ATOS architecture is presented. This architecture relies on the concept of a Mission Information Base (MIB) as the repository for all information and knowledge which will be used by the advanced application modules in future mission control systems. The MIB is being designed to exploit the latest in database and knowledge representation technology in an open and distributed system. In conclusion the technological and implementation challenges expected to be encountered, as well as the future plans and time scale of the project, are presented.

Kaufeler, J.-F.

Cloud Computing Applications in Support of Earth Science Activities at Marshall Space Flight Center

Currently, the NASA Nebula Cloud Computing Platform is available to Agency personnel in a pre-release status as the system undergoes a formal operational readiness review. Over the past year, two projects within the Earth Science Office at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center have been investigating the performance and value of Nebula s "Infrastructure as a Service", or "IaaS" concept and applying cloud computing concepts to advance their respective mission goals. The Short-term Prediction Research and Transition (SPoRT) Center focuses on the transition of unique NASA satellite observations and weather forecasting capabilities for use within the operational forecasting community through partnerships with NOAA s National Weather Service (NWS). SPoRT has evaluated the performance of the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model on virtual machines deployed within Nebula and used Nebula instances to simulate local forecasts in support of regional forecast studies of interest to select NWS forecast offices. In addition to weather forecasting applications, rapidly deployable Nebula virtual machines have supported the processing of high resolution NASA satellite imagery to support disaster assessment following the historic severe weather and tornado outbreak of April 27, 2011. Other modeling and satellite analysis activities are underway in support of NASA s SERVIR program, which integrates satellite observations, ground-based data and forecast models to monitor environmental change and improve disaster response in Central America, the Caribbean, Africa, and the Himalayas. Leveraging SPoRT s experience, SERVIR is working to establish a real-time weather forecasting model for Central America. Other modeling efforts include hydrologic forecasts for Kenya, driven by NASA satellite observations and reanalysis data sets provided by the broader meteorological community. Forecast modeling efforts are supplemented by short-term forecasts of convective initiation, determined by geostationary satellite observations processed on virtual machines powered by Nebula.

Molthan, Andrew L.

Database Design Strategies for Coordinated Simulation and Testing in Additive Manufacturing

The qualification and certification (Q&C) process presents a significant challenge for widespread adoption of additive manufacturing (AM) materials and processes for aerospace applications. A relational database framework will be presented as a tool for data curation of coordinated experimental and computational materials modeling research activities. A comparison of relational and hierarchical data structures in this domain will be emphasized through the evolution of a database design strategy. This framework’s mission is to support the advancement of computational materials-informed Q&C by providing the necessary data infrastructure to trace reliability and reproducibility measures through unified AM materials simulation and experimental testing. FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable, and reusable) data will be highlighted as a necessary precursor for automation of specific actions, which ultimately reduces the time and expense burden for Q&C. The discussion will be mostly limited to back-end design elements, though a few front-end user experience examples will also be shared.

Qualification

Telescience workstation

As part of the Telescience Testbed Pilot Program, the Universities Space Research Association/ Research Institute for Advanced Computer Science (USRA/RIACS) proposed to support remote communication by providing a network of human/machine interfaces, computer resources, and experimental equipment which allows: remote science, collaboration, technical exchange, and multimedia communication. The telescience workstation is intended to provide a local computing environment for telescience. The purpose of the program are as follows: (1) to provide a suitable environment to integrate existing and new software for a telescience workstation; (2) to provide a suitable environment to develop new software in support of telescience activities; (3) to provide an interoperable environment so that a wide variety of workstations may be used in the telescience program; (4) to provide a supportive infrastructure and a common software base; and (5) to advance, apply, and evaluate the telescience technolgy base. A prototype telescience computing environment designed to bring practicing scientists in domains other than their computer science into a modern style of doing their computing was created and deployed. This environment, the Telescience Windowing Environment, Phase 1 (TeleWEn-1), met some, but not all of the goals stated above. The TeleWEn-1 provided a window-based workstation environment and a set of tools for text editing, document preparation, electronic mail, multimedia mail, raster manipulation, and system management.

Brown, Robert L.

Earth System Digital Twins (ESDT) Technology for NASA Earth Science

For NASA's Advanced Information Systems Technology (AIST) Program, an Earth System Digital Twin (ESDT) is defined as an interactive and integrated multidomain, multiscale, digital replica of the state and temporal evolution of Earth systems. It dynamically integrates: relevant Earth system models and simulations; other relevant models (e.g., related to the world's infrastructure); continuous and timely (including near real time and direct readout) observations (e.g., space, air, ground, over/underwater, Internet of Things (IoT), socioeconomic); long-time records; as well as analytics and artificial intelligence tools. Effective ESDTs enable users to run hypothetical scenarios to improve the understanding, prediction of and mitigation/response to Earth system processes, natural phenomena and human activities as well as their many interactions. An ESDT is a type of integrated information system that, for example, enables continuous assessment of impact from naturally occurring and/or human activities on physical and natural environments. AIST ESDT strategic goals are to: 1. Develop information system frameworks to provide continuous and accurate representations of systems as they change over time; 2. Mirror various Earth Science systems and utilize the combination of Data Analytics, Artificial Intelligence, Digital Thread, and state-of-the-art models to help predict the Earth’s response to various phenomena; 3. Provide the tools to conduct "what if" investigations that can result in actionable predictions. The AIST ESDT thrust is developing capabilities toward the development of future digital twins of the Earth or of subcomponents of the Earth. This will enable the development of an overarching framework that will integrate New Observing Strategies (NOS) to enable new observation measurements, i.e., multi-source, coordinated, dynamic and responsive to needs and requests defined by Analytic Collaborative Frameworks (ACF) that enable agile science investigations fusing and analyzing very large amounts of diverse data. NOS and ACF capabilities along with open access to various science, infrastructure and human data, interconnected modeling, data assimilation, simulations, surrogate modeling, high-performance computing and advanced visualization, will define a powerful framework that could be utilized for local, regional or global and/or thematic digital twins. This presentation will describe a general overview of the AIST ESDT vision including prior work done in the areas of NOS and ACF as well as current and upcoming ESDT projects.

Jacqueline Le Moigne

Advances in Spatial Data Infrastructure, Acquisition, Analysis, Archiving and Dissemination

The authors review recent contributions to the state-of-thescience and benign proliferation of satellite remote sensing, spatial data infrastructure, near-real-time data acquisition, analysis on high performance computing platforms, sapient archiving, multi-modal dissemination and utilization for a wide array of scientific applications. The authors also address advances in Geoinformatics and its growing ubiquity, as evidenced by its inclusion as a focus area within the American Geophysical Union (AGU), European Geosciences Union (EGU), as well as by the evolution of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society's (GRSS) Data Archiving and Distribution Technical Committee (DAD TC).

Ramapriyan, Hampapuran K.

Evolution of Flexible Multibody Dynamics for Simulation Applications Supporting Human Spaceflight

During the course of transition from the Space Shuttle and International Space Station programs to the Orion and Journey to Mars exploration programs, a generic flexible multibody dynamics formulation and associated software implementation has evolved to meet an ever changing set of requirements at the NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC). Challenging problems related to large transitional topologies and robotic free-flyer vehicle capture/ release, contact dynamics, and exploration missions concept evaluation through simulation (e.g., asteroid surface operations) have driven this continued development. Coupled with this need is the requirement to oftentimes support human spaceflight operations in real-time. Moreover, it has been desirable to allow even more rapid prototyping of on-orbit manipulator and spacecraft systems, to support less complex infrastructure software for massively integrated simulations, to yield further computational efficiencies, and to take advantage of recent advances and availability of multi-core computing platforms. Since engineering analysis, procedures development, and crew familiarity/training for human spaceflight is fundamental to JSC's charter, there is also a strong desire to share and reuse models in both the non-realtime and real-time domains, with the goal of retaining as much multibody dynamics fidelity as possible. Three specific enhancements are reviewed here: (1) linked list organization to address large transitional topologies, (2) body level model order reduction, and (3) parallel formulation/implementation. This paper provides a detailed overview of these primary updates to JSC's flexible multibody dynamics algorithms as well as a comparison of numerical results to previous formulations and associated software.

Multibody dynamics

NASA's Unsteady Pressure-Sensitive Paint Research and Operational Capability Developments

In the last three years, several advancements have been made to produce a new state-of-the-art capability in the field of Aerosciences. NASA’s Aerosciences Evaluations and Test Capabilities (AETC) Portfolio Office has funded a multi-year project to produce the unsteady Pressure-Sensitive Paint (uPSP) technology as an operational capability in key ground test facilities at NASA. The research and development has primarily been conducted at NASA Ames Research Center’s (ARC) Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel (UPWT) 11-by 11-ft Transonic Wind Tunnel (TWT). The NASA ARC UPWT is one of the ground test facilities under NASA AETC’s Portfolio Office. AETC’s goals are to provide the tools to deliver the technology innovations and breakthroughs necessary to address increasingly complex research and development challenges. AETC’s integrated approach will consider the complimentary high-end compute capabilities necessary to advance analysis in conjunction with ground experimental capabilities. The uPSP Capability Challenge Project is a demonstration of several different technologies: 1) the unsteady Pressure-Sensitive Paint (uPSP) technology, and 2) Project: Red Rover, establishing a secure, reliable, fast connection between experimental and computation facilities, leveraging NASA’s computational resources within the High-End Compute Capability (HECC) Project for processing, storing, and sharing data efficiently. This project demonstrates the technical diversity and technical inclusion need to advance the field of Aerosciences. The approach to combine subject matter experts in experimental methods, optical methods, production wind tunnel testing, network engineering, high-end computing, signal processing, grid generation, and visualization while establishing the required infrastructure for subject matter experts to have access to the data while the wind tunnel test is being conducted. The most recent advancements for the uPSP technology have focused on three key areas: development of data products, robust processing pipeline, operational efficiencies and uncertainty quantification.

buffet

Bridging the Gap from Networking Technologies to Applications: Workshop Report

The objective of the Next Generation Internet (NGI) Federal program is threefold, encompassing development of networking technologies, high-performance network testbeds, and revolutionary applications. There have been notable advances in emerging network technologies and several nationwide testbeds have been established, but the integration of emerging technologies into applications is lagging. To help bridge this gap between developers of NGI networking technologies and developers of NGI applications, the NASA Research and Education Network (NREN) project hosted a two-day workshop at NASA Ames Research Center in August 1999. This paper presents a summary of the results of this workshop and also describes some of the challenges NREN is facing while incorporating new technologies into HPCC and other NASA applications. The workshop focused on three technologies - Quality of Service (QoS), advanced multicast, and security-and five major NGI application areas - telemedicine, digital earth, digital video, distributed data-intensive applications, and computational infrastructure applications. Network technology experts, application developers, and NGI testbed representatives came together at the workshop to promote cross-fertilization between the groups. Presentations on the first day, including an overview of the three technologies, application case studies and testbed status reports, laid the foundation for discussions on the second day. The objective of these latter discussions, held within smaller breakout groups, was to establish a coherent picture of the current status of the various pieces of each of the three technologies, to create a roadmap outlining future technology development, and to offer technological guidance to application developers. In this paper we first present a brief overview of the NGI applications that were represented at the workshop, focusing on the identification of technological advances that have successfully been incorporated in each application and technological challenges that remain. Next we present the technology roadmaps that were created at the workshop, summarizing the status of various mechanisms that are currently under development and forecasting when various advances are likely to occur within the next one-to-three-year time span. Then we identify issues that were raised at the workshop that might hinder technology development or that might impede integration into NGI applications. We also report some specific guidelines that were offered at the workshop to enable application developers to integrate and effectively use emerging NGI technology building blocks. Finally, we describe NREN activities to incorporate emerging technologies into NASA applications. These activities include support for other NASA High-Performance Computing and Communications Program areas such as IPG (Information Power Grid), support for NASA science enterprises such as Earth science and Mars program prototyping activities, support for satellite/terrestrial networking applications such as the TransAtlantic and TransPacific demonstrations and the Interplanetary Internet, support for NASA telemedicine applications such as the Virtual Collaborative Clinic, and participation in NGI advanced technology testbed initiatives such as the QBone and the NTON/Supernet. For each activity we highlight the primary technological challenge that is associated with it.

Johnson, Marjory J.

Advanced propulsion for LEO-Moon transport. 3: Transportation model

A simplified computational model of low Earth orbit-Moon transportation system has been developed to provide insight into the benefits of new transportation technologies. A reference transportation infrastructure, based upon near-term technology developments, is used as a departure point for assessing other, more advanced alternatives. Comparison of the benefits of technology application, measured in terms of a mass payback ratio, suggests that several of the advanced technology alternatives could substantially improve the efficiency of low Earth orbit-Moon transportation.

Henley, Mark W.