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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2022

Un-Numbered Operational Areas PRL 229 Railroad Tie Disposal Area Pond Confirmation Sampling Report

This Confirmatory Sampling (CS) Report (CSR) was prepared for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida in accordance with the CS Work Plan (CSWP) (HGL, 2022a). The CSR summarizes investigation activities performed on the Railroad Tie Disposal Area (RTDA) of the Un-Numbered Operational Areas (UNOA), Potential Release Location (PRL) 229 located at KSC. HydroGeoLogic, Inc. (HGL) prepared this report under Contract Number 80KSC019D0012. The purpose of the CSR is to provide information to evaluate the level of potential contamination in surface water and sediment samples collected from the RTDA PRL 229 Pond and determine if contaminants pose unacceptable risks to ecological receptors. The CSR provides analytical data of 10 sets of surface water and sediment samples collected in 2021. Surface water samples were analyzed for volatile organic compounds (VOCs), semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs), metals, hardness, and salinity, while sediment samples were analyzed for metals, total organic carbon (TOC), SVOCs, PAHs, and total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH). The CSR includes a Screening Level Ecological Risk Assessment (SLERA) conducted under KSC’s Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Corrective Action Program to determine if unacceptable risks to ecological receptors exist at PRL 229 Pond. Metals and PAHs were detected in surface water samples, including detections of antimony, arsenic, barium, calcium, copper, lead, magnesium, thallium, zinc, anthracene, benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, chrysene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, fluoranthene, indeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene and pyrene. Based on measured salinity (1.03 to 1.21 parts per thousand), the pond was identified as freshwater. Sediment analytical results also contained detections of metals and PAHs, including antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, thallium, zinc, anthracene benzo(a)anthracene, benzo(a)pyrene, benzo(b)fluoranthene, benzo(g,h,i)perylene, benzo(k)fluoranthene, chrysene, dibenzo(a,h)anthracene, fluoranthene, indeno(1,2,3-c,d)pyrene and pyrene. Potential risks to ecological receptors were evaluated in accordance with the SLERA Work Plan and the Decision Process Document for the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Corrective Action Program at KSC (DPD) (Geosyntec, 2019), and using the 2021 sediment and surface water analytical results. Potential ecological receptors evaluated in the SLERA include the aquatic community, benthic invertebrates, aquatic birds, and aquatic mammals. The SLERA included Steps 2a through 2c of the Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA) process in accordance with the DPD. Using multiple lines of evidence, the SLERA concluded that many of the detected analytes are present at concentrations similar to those in background or reference locations at KSC, and/or at concentrations that would not pose a significant risk to ecological communities. There are no screening values available for the avian community, and PAHs are bioaccumulative compounds. For this reason, food web modeling was completed as a supplement to Step 2c to provide a quantitative evaluation of this exposure pathway. Food web modeling indicates that PAHs are unlikely to pose a risk to birds exposed to site sediment and surface water. Based on the results of the SLERA, the contaminants in sediment and surface water pose no to minimal risk to the ecological communities that could live or forage at the site. Based on the results of the SLERA, no further study is recommended for the RTDA Pond at PRL 229.

Confirmation Sampling↗
NASA NTRS1978

Activation analysis of admixtures in certain semiconductive materials

The use of extractions and chromatographic operations to separate macrobases, and to divide elements into groups convenient for gamma-spectrometric analysis is discussed. Methods are described for the activation detection of some impurities in silicon, arsenic, thallium, and trichloromethylsilane, on the basis of the extraction properties of bis(2-chlorethyl ether) and dimethylbenzylalkylammonium chloride. A schematic diagram of the extraction separation of elements-admixture is presented showing the aqueous and organic phases. The content percentage of the various elements are given in tables.

Artyukhin, P. I.↗
NASA NTRS2001

Canaveral National Seashore Water Quality and Aquatic Resource Inventory

Mosquito Lagoon is a shallow, bar-built estuary located on the east central Florida Coast, primarily within the KSC boundary. The lagoon and watershed cover approximately 327 sq km (79422 acres) .The Lagoon occupies 159 sq km (37853 acres). Water depths average approximately 1m. The lagoon volume is approximately 1.6 x 10(exp 8)cu m. Water quality in Mosquito Lagoon is good. Salinity data typically range between 20 ppt and 35 ppt. The lowest value recorded was 4.5 ppt and the highest value was 37 ppt. Water temperatures fluctuate 2 - 3 C over a 24 h period. Cold front passage can rapidly alter water temperatures by 5 - 10 C or more in a short period of time. The highest temperature was 33.4 C and the lowest temperature was 8.8 C after a winter storm. Dissolved oxygen concentrations ranged from a low of 0.4 mg/l to a high of 15.3 mg/l. Extended periods of measurements below the Florida Department of Environmental Protection criteria of 4.0 mg/l were observed in fall and spring months suggesting high system respiration and oxygen demand. Metals such as antimony, arsenic, molybdenum and mercury were report as below detection limits for all samples. Cadmium, copper, chromium, silver, and zinc were found to be periodically above the Florida Department of Environmental Protection criteria for Class II and Class III surface waters.

Hall, C. R.↗
NASA NTRS2000

Mars Spark Source Prototype Developed

The Mars Spark Source Prototype (MSSP) hardware was developed as part of a proof of concept system for the detection of trace metals such as lead, cadmium, and arsenic in Martian dusts and soils. A spark discharge produces plasma from a soil sample, and detectors measure the optical emission from metals in the plasma to identify and quantify them. Trace metal measurements are vital in assessing whether or not the Martian environment will be toxic to human explorers. The current method of x-ray fluorescence can yield concentrations of major species only. Other instruments are incompatible with the volume, weight, and power constraints for a Mars mission. The new instrument will be developed primarily for use in the Martian environment, but it would be adaptable for terrestrial use in environmental monitoring. The NASA Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field initiated the development of the MSSP as part of Glenn's Director's Discretionary Fund project for the Spark Analysis Detection of Trace Metal Species in Martian Dusts and Soils. The objective of this project is to develop and demonstrate a compact, sensitive optical instrument for the detection of trace hazardous metals in Martian dusts and soils.

Eichenberg, Dennis J.↗
NASA NTRS1999

Mars Spark Source Prototype

The Mars Spark Source Prototype (MSSP) hardware has been developed as part of a proof of concept system for the detection of trace metals such as lead, cadmium, and arsenic in Martian dusts and soils. A spark discharge produces plasma from a soil sample and detectors measure the optical emission from metals in the plasma that will allow their identification and quantification. Trace metal measurements are vital for the assessment of the potential toxicity of the Martian environment for human exploration. The current method of X-ray fluorescence can yield concentrations only of major species. Other instruments are incompatible with the volume, weight, and power constraints for a Mars mission. The instrument will be developed primarily for use in the Martian environment, but would be adaptable for terrestrial use in environmental monitoring. This paper describes the Mars Spark Source Prototype hardware, the results of the characterization tests, and future plans for hardware development.

Eichenberg, Dennis J.↗
NASA NTRS2016

Growth Mechanism of Nanowires: Binary and Ternary Chalcogenides

Semiconductor nanowires exhibit very exciting optical and electrical properties including high transparency and a several order of magnitude better photocurrent than thin film and bulk materials. We present here the mechanism of nanowire growth from the melt-liquid-vapor medium. We describe preliminary results of binary and ternary selenide materials in light of recent theories. Experiments were performed with lead selenide and thallium arsenic selenide systems which are multifunctional material and have been used for detectors, acousto-optical, nonlinear and radiation detection applications. We observed that small units of nanocubes and elongated nanoparticles arrange and rearrange at moderate melt undercooling to form the building block of a nanowire. Since we avoided the catalyst, we observed self-nucleation and uncontrolled growth of wires from different places. Growth of lead selenide nanowires was performed by physical vapor transport method and thallium arsenic selenide nanowire by vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) method. In some cases very long wires (>mm) are formed. To achieve this goal experiments were performed to create situation where nanowires grew on the surface of solid thallium arsenic selenide itself.

Singh, N. B.↗
NASA NTRS2016

Growth Mechanism of Nanowires: Ternary Chalcogenides

In the past two decades there has been a large rise in the investment and expectations for nanotechnology use. Almost every area of research has projected improvements in sensors, or even a promise for the emergence of some novel device technologies. For these applications major focuses of research are in the areas of nanoparticles and graphene. Although there are some near term applications with nanowires in photodetectors and other low light detectors, there are few papers on the growth mechanism and fabrication of nanowire-based devices. Semiconductor nanowires exhibit very favorable and promising optical properties, including high transparency and a several order of magnitude better photocurrent than thin film and bulk materials. We present here an overview of the mechanism of nanowire growth from the melt, and some preliminary results for the thallium arsenic selenide material system. Thallium arsenic selenide (TAS) is a multifunctional material combining excellent acousto-optical, nonlinear and radiation detection properties. We observed that small units of (TAS) nanocubes arrange and rearrange at moderate melt undercooling to form the building block of a nanowire. In some cases very long wires (less than mm) are formed. Since we avoided the catalyst, we observed self-nucleation and uncontrolled growth of wires from different places.

Singh, N. B.↗
NASA NTRS1997

Development of 256 x 256 Element Impurity Band Conduction Infrared Detector Arrays for Astronomy

This report describes the work performed on a one and a half year advance technology program to develop Impurity Band Conduction (IBC) detectors with very low dark current, high quantum efficiency, and with good repeatable processes. The program fabricated several epitaxial growths of Si:As detecting layers from 15 to 35 microns thick and analyzed the performance versus the thickness and the Arsenic concentration of these epitaxial layers. Some of the epitaxial runs did not yield because of excessive residual impurities. The thicker epitaxial layers and the ones with higher Arsenic concentration resulted in good detectors with low dark currents and good quantum efficiency. The program hybridized six detector die from the best detector wafers to a low noise, 256 x 256 readout array and delivered the hybrids to NASA Ames for a more detailed study of the performance of the detectors.

Domingo, George↗
NASA NTRS2023

Optical Characteristics of Radiated Multifunctional Optical Materials

The performance of optical and electronic materials, and devices are affected significantly in space due to exposure from high energy radiations. We have been investigating the effect of -ray radiations on multifunctional binary and ternary selenide and halide crystals. These materials have shown excellent performance for the wavelength conversion in MWIR and LWIR regions, acousto-optics, and great potential for radiation detection. Crystals with high Z materials such as thallium, mercury and lead based compounds have great potential for the development of a variety of devices and components suitable for space applications. We will report on the characteristics of several halides including mercurous halides (Hg2X2, X= Cl, Br, I), Thallium mercury iodide (Tl4HgI4) and thallium arsenic selenide and thallium gallium selenide, and ternary selenides. These crystals, synthesized with high purity source materials, will be evaluated by studying optical characteristics and measuring resistivity after exposure to a 137Cs -ray source.

Radiation↗
NASA NTRS1980

Effects of heavy metals on the absorbance and reflectance spectra of plants

The spectral responses of plants to various concentrations of heavy metals in their rooting media are investigated in relation to the application of remote sensing methods to the detection of vegetation under stress. Absorption photometry of chloroplasts, measurements of metal and chlorophyll concentrations and reflectance spectrometry were performed on leaves of pea, sunflower and soybean plants grown under greenhouse conditions with the addition of various concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn to their rooting media and on leaves of oak trees growing naturally in an area of a copper-arsenic mineralization. Under laboratory conditions, the most general effect observed was growth inhibition and ultimately death, with pea plants also exhibiting changes of chlorophyll a/ chlorophyll b ratios with Cd and Cu and reflectance increases in the visible and decreases in the infrared. Although results for other species indicate that reflectance effects are dependent on species, correlations between reflectance and metal exposure is confirmed by the field investigations. It is concluded that a remote sensing system would be improved by the inclusion of bands around 1.65 and 2.20 microns to detect soil mineralization from plant spectra.

Horler, D. N. H.↗
NASA NTRS1998

Mutagenicity of arsenic in mammalian cells: role of reactive oxygen species

Arsenite, the trivalent form of arsenic present in the environment, is a known human carcinogen that lacked mutagenic activity in bacterial and standard mammalian cell mutation assays. We show herein that when evaluated in an assay (AL cell assay), in which both intragenic and multilocus mutations are detectable, that arsenite is in fact a strong dose-dependent mutagen and that it induces mostly large deletion mutations. Cotreatment of cells with the oxygen radical scavenger dimethyl sulfoxide significantly reduces the mutagenicity of arsenite. Thus, the carcinogenicity of arsenite can be explained at least in part by it being a mutagen that depends on reactive oxygen species for its activity.

Non-NASA Center↗
NASA NTRS1981

Some aspects of analytical chemistry as applied to water quality assurance techniques for reclaimed water: The potential use of X-ray fluorescence spectrometry for automated on-line fast real-time simultaneous multi-component analysis of inorganic pollutants in reclaimed water

The potential use of isotopically excited energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry for automated on line fast real time (5 to 15 minutes) simultaneous multicomponent (up to 20) trace (1 to 10 parts per billion) analysis of inorganic pollutants in reclaimed water was examined. Three anionic elements (chromium 6, arsenic and selenium) were studied. The inherent lack of sensitivity of XRF spectrometry for these elements mandates use of a preconcentration technique and various methods were examined, including: several direct and indirect evaporation methods; ion exchange membranes; selective and nonselective precipitation; and complexation processes. It is shown tha XRF spectrometry itself is well suited for automated on line quality assurance, and can provide a nondestructive (and thus sample storage and repeat analysis capabilities) and particularly convenient analytical method. Further, the use of an isotopically excited energy dispersive unit (50 mCi Cd-109 source) coupled with a suitable preconcentration process can provide sufficient sensitivity to achieve the current mandated minimum levels of detection without the need for high power X-ray generating tubes.

Ling, A. C.↗
NASA NTRS2012

Typical Types and Formation Mechanisms of Haze in an Eastern Asia Megacity, Shanghai

An intensive aerosol and gases campaign was performed at Shanghai in the Yangtze River Delta region over Eastern China from late March to early June 2009. This study provided a complementary picture of typical haze types and the formation mechanisms in megacities over China by using a synergy of ground-based monitoring, satellite and lidar observations. During the whole study period, several extreme low visibility periods were observed with distinct characteristics, and three typical haze types were identified, i.e. secondary inorganic pollution, dust, and biomass burning. Sulfate, nitrate and ammonium accounted for a major part of PM2.5 mass during the secondary inorganic pollution, and the good correlation between SO2/NOx/CO and PM2.5 indicated that coal burning and vehicle emission were the major sources. Large-scale regions with high AOD (aerosol optical depths) and low Angstrom exponent were detected by remote-sensing observation during the dust pollution episode, and this episode corresponded to coarse particles rich in mineral components such as Al and Ca contributing 76.8% to TSP. The relatively low Ca/Al ratio of 0.75 along with the air mass backward trajectory analysis suggested the dust source was from Gobi Desert. Typical tracers for biomass burning from satellite observation (column CO and HCHO) and from ground measurement (CO, particulate K+, OC, and EC) were greatly enhanced during the biomass burning pollution episode. The exclusive linear correlation between CO and PM2.5 corroborated that organic aerosol dominated aerosol chemistry during biomass burning, and the high concentration and enrichment degree of arsenic (As) could be also partly derived from biomass burning. Aerosol optical profile observed by lidar demonstrated that aerosol was mainly constrained below the boundary layer and comprised of spheric aerosol (depolarization ratio <5%) during the secondary inorganic and biomass burning episodes, while thick dust layer distributed at altitudes from near surface to 1.4 km (average depolarization ratio = 0.122+/-0.023) with dust accounting for 44-55% of the total aerosol extinction coefficient during the dust episode. This study portrayed a good picture of the typical haze types and proposed that identification of the complicated emission sources is important for the air quality improvement in megacities in China.

haze↗
NASA NTRS2012

Analyzers Measure Greenhouse Gases, Airborne Pollutants

In complete darkness, a NASA observatory waits. When an eruption of boiling water billows from a nearby crack in the ground, the observatory s sensors seek particles in the fluid, measure shifts in carbon isotopes, and analyze samples for biological signatures. NASA has landed the observatory in this remote location, far removed from air and sunlight, to find life unlike any that scientists have ever seen. It might sound like a scene from a distant planet, but this NASA mission is actually exploring an ocean floor right here on Earth. NASA established a formal exobiology program in 1960, which expanded into the present-day Astrobiology Program. The program, which celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2010, not only explores the possibility of life elsewhere in the universe, but also examines how life begins and evolves, and what the future may hold for life on Earth and other planets. Answers to these questions may be found not only by launching rockets skyward, but by sending probes in the opposite direction. Research here on Earth can revise prevailing concepts of life and biochemistry and point to the possibilities for life on other planets, as was demonstrated in December 2010, when NASA researchers discovered microbes in Mono Lake in California that subsist and reproduce using arsenic, a toxic chemical. The Mono Lake discovery may be the first of many that could reveal possible models for extraterrestrial life. One primary area of interest for NASA astrobiologists lies with the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. These vents expel jets of water heated and enriched with chemicals from off-gassing magma below the Earth s crust. Also potentially within the vents: microbes that, like the Mono Lake microorganisms, defy the common characteristics of life on Earth. Basically all organisms on our planet generate energy through the Krebs Cycle, explains Mike Flynn, research scientist at NASA s Ames Research Center. This metabolic process breaks down sugars for energy to fuel cellular functions. "We think this chemical process did not exist when life first formed on Earth," he says, "because it is based on oxygen being available, and there was little oxygen available on the early Earth." It is possible that there are anaerobic regions beneath the sea floor in which life forms like those early non-Krebs Cycle microbes may yet exist. To detect and potentially collect samples of life emerging from hydrothermal vents, Flynn and his colleagues created Medusa, a multi-sensor instrument designed for long-term observation of diked vents on the ocean floor. When the vents erupt, Medusa assesses indicators of life within the expelled water. If the results are positive, the observatory collects samples and detaches from the ocean floor, making the long journey to the surface for retrieval by scientists. One of the indicators Medusa measures is the ratio of carbon isotopes in the water, namely carbon-12 and carbon-13. Living organisms preferentially take up carbon-12, Flynn says, so examining the ratio of these isotopes can help to determine the source of carbon in an environment as either biological or non-biological. "On Mars, there is evidence of localized methane in the atmosphere, and that methane could come from biological sources or from geochemical ones," Flynn says. "Determining the background planetary carbon isotope ratios and then evaluating the specific carbon ratios in this methane would help to determine how it was formed." A long-duration observatory similar to Medusa could one day provide essential evidence for or against the presence of life on the Red Planet or beneath the ice-crusted oceans of Europa.

Source record↗
NASA NTRS2005

N-Type delta Doping of High-Purity Silicon Imaging Arrays

A process for n-type (electron-donor) delta doping has shown promise as a means of modifying back-illuminated image detectors made from n-doped high-purity silicon to enable them to detect high-energy photons (ultraviolet and x-rays) and low-energy charged particles (electrons and ions). This process is applicable to imaging detectors of several types, including charge-coupled devices, hybrid devices, and complementary metal oxide/semiconductor detector arrays. Delta doping is so named because its density-vs.-depth characteristic is reminiscent of the Dirac delta function (impulse function): the dopant is highly concentrated in a very thin layer. Preferably, the dopant is concentrated in one or at most two atomic layers in a crystal plane and, therefore, delta doping is also known as atomic-plane doping. The use of doping to enable detection of high-energy photons and low-energy particles was reported in several prior NASA Tech Briefs articles. As described in more detail in those articles, the main benefit afforded by delta doping of a back-illuminated silicon detector is to eliminate a "dead" layer at the back surface of the silicon wherein high-energy photons and low-energy particles are absorbed without detection. An additional benefit is that the delta-doped layer can serve as a back-side electrical contact. Delta doping of p-type silicon detectors is well established. The development of the present process addresses concerns specific to the delta doping of high-purity silicon detectors, which are typically n-type. The present process involves relatively low temperatures, is fully compatible with other processes used to fabricate the detectors, and does not entail interruption of those processes. Indeed, this process can be the last stage in the fabrication of an imaging detector that has, in all other respects, already been fully processed, including metallized. This process includes molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE) for deposition of three layers, including metallization. The success of the process depends on accurate temperature control, surface treatment, growth of high-quality crystalline silicon, and precise control of thicknesses of layers. MBE affords the necessary nanometer- scale control of the placement of atoms for delta doping. More specifically, the process consists of MBE deposition of a thin silicon buffer layer, the n-type delta doping layer, and a thin silicon cap layer. The n dopant selected for initial experiments was antimony, but other n dopants as (phosphorus or arsenic) could be used. All n-type dopants in silicon tend to surface-segregate during growth, leading to a broadened dopant-concentration- versus-depth profile. In order to keep the profile as narrow as possible, the substrate temperature is held below 300 C during deposition of the silicon cap layer onto the antimony delta layer. The deposition of silicon includes a silicon- surface-preparation step, involving H-termination, that enables the growth of high-quality crystalline silicon at the relatively low temperature with close to full electrical activation of donors in the surface layer.

Blacksberg, Jordana↗
NASA NTRS2015

Double-Diffusive Convection During Growth of Halides and Selenides

Heavy metal halides and selenides have unique properties which make them excellent materials for chemical, biological and radiological sensors. Recently it has been shown that selenohalides are even better materials than halides or selenides for gamma-ray detection. These materials also meet the strong needs of a wide band imaging technology to cover ultra-violet (UV), midwave infrared wavelength (MWIR) to very long wavelength infrared (VLWIR) region for hyperspectral imager components such as etalon filters and acousto-optic tunable filters (AO). In fact AOTF based imagers based on these materials have some superiority than imagers based on liquid crystals, FTIR, Fabry-Perot, grating, etalon, electro-optic modulation, piezoelectric and several other concepts. For example, broadband spectral and imagers have problems of processing large amount of information during real-time observation. Acousto-Optic Tunable Filter (AOTF) imagers are being developed to fill the need of reducing processing time of data, low cost operation and key to achieving the goal of covering long-wave infrared (LWIR). At the present time spectral imaging systems are based on the use of diffraction gratings are typically used in a pushbroom or whiskbroom mode. They are mostly used in systems and acquire large amounts of hyperspectral data that is processed off-line later. In contrast, acousto-optic tunable filter spectral imagers require very little image processing, providing new strategies for object recognition and tracking. They are ideally suited for tactical situations requiring immediate real-time image processing. But the performance of these imagers depends on the quality and homogeneity of acousto-optic materials. In addition for many systems requirements are so demanding that crystals up to sizes of 10 cm length are desired. We have studied several selenides and halide crystals for laser and AO imagers for MWIR and LWIR wavelength regions. We have grown and fabricated crystals of several materials such as mercurous chloride, mercurous bromide, mercurous iodide, lead chloride lead bromide, lead iodide, thallium arsenic selenide, gallium selenide, zince sulfide zinc selenide and several crystals into devices. We have used both Bridgman and physical vapor transport (PVT) crystal growth methods. In the past have examined PVT growth numerically for conditions where the boundary of the enclosure is subjected to a nonlinear thermal profile. Since past few months we have been working on binary and ternary materials such as selenoiodides, doped zinc sulfides and mercurous chloro bromide and mercurous bromoiodides. In the doped and ternary materials thermal and solutal convection play extremely important role during the growth. Very commonly striations and banding is observed. Our experiments have indicated that even in highly purified source materials, homogeneity in 1-g environment is very difficult. Some of our previous numerical studies have indicated that gravity level less than 10-4 (-g) helps in controlling the thermosolutal convection. We will discuss the ground based growth results of HgClxBr(1-x) and ZnSe growth results for the mm thick to large cm size crystals. These results will be compared with our microgravity experiments performed with this class of materials. For both HgCl-HgBr and ZnS-ZnSe the lattice parameters of the mixtures obey Vagard's law in the studied composition range. The study demonstrates that properties are very anisotropic with crystal orientation, and performance achievement requires extremely careful fabrication to utilize highest figure of merit. In addition, some parameters such as crystal growth fabrication, processing time, resolution, field of view and efficiency will be described based on novel solid solution materials. It was predicted that very similar to the pure compounds solid solutions also have very large anisotropy, and very precise oriented and homogeneous bulk and thin film crystals is required to achieve maximum performance of laser or imagers. Some of the parameters controlling the homogeneity such as thermos-solutal convection driven forces can be controlled in microgravity environments to utilize the benefits of these unique materials.

Singh, N. B.↗