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DOE OSTI2023

Low hydrogen solubility in clay interlayers limits gas loss in hydrogen geological storage

Gas intercalation into clay interlayers may result in hydrogen loss in the geological storage of hydrogen; a phenomenon that has not been fully understood and quantified. Here we use metadynamics molecular simulations to calculate the free energy landscape of H 2 intercalation into montmorillonite interlayers and the H 2 solubility in the confined water; in comparison with results obtained for CO 2 . Furthermore, the results indicate that H 2 intercalation into hydrated interlayers is thermodynamically unfavorable while CO 2 intercalation can be favorable. H 2 solubility in hydrated clay interlayers is in the same order of magnitude as that in bulk water and therefore no over-solubility effect due to nanoconfinement is observed – in striking contrast with CO 2 . These results indicate that H 2 loss and leakage through hydrated interlayers due to intercalation in a subsurface storage system, if any, is limited.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2026

Evaluating hydrogen permeation through medium-density and high-density polyethylene pipes to enable a hydrogen-compatible infrastructure

As the United States and the global community pursue energy abundance and resilience, hydrogen is becoming a critical energy carrier. The future of hydrogen transport depends on one thing: verifying that today’s pipelines are hydrogen ready. This study investigates the permeation behavior of medium-density polyethylene (MDPE) and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipelines under pure hydrogen gas environment at various pressures and temperatures. Using thermal desorption analysis (TDA) and direct pipe permeability measurements, hydrogen loss rates are quantified, revealing minimal permeation losses (< 10.5 g/km/day) under realistic operating conditions. Effects of temperature and pressure with Standard Dimension Ratios (SDR), were evaluated to determine their influence on permeation rates of MDPE and HDPE pipelines. In addition, ex-situ density and degree of crystallinity (DOC) of MDPE and HDPEs after hydrogen exposure were also investigated to understand pressure-dependency of polymer properties. The findings provide essential data for assessing polymer-based pipeline materials for safe and reliable hydrogen transport.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2023

Reaction between Hydrogen and Ferrous/Ferric Oxides at High Pressures and High Temperatures—Implications for Sub-Neptunes and Super-Earths

Abstract Sub-Neptune exoplanets may have thick hydrogen envelopes and therefore develop a high-pressure interface between hydrogen and the underlying silicates/metals. Some sub-Neptunes may convert to super-Earths via massive gas loss. If hydrogen chemically reacts with oxides and metals at high pressures and temperatures ( P − T ), it could impact the structure and composition of the cores and atmospheres of sub-Neptunes and super-Earths. While H 2 gas is a strong reducing agent at low pressures, the behavior of hydrogen is unknown at the P − T expected for sub-Neptunes’ interiors, where hydrogen is a dense supercritical fluid. Here we report experimental results of reactions between ferrous/ferric oxides and hydrogen at 20–40 GPa and 1000–4000 K utilizing the pulsed laser-heated diamond-anvil cell combined with synchrotron X-ray diffraction. Under these conditions, hydrogen spontaneously strips iron off the oxides, forming Fe-H alloys and releasing oxygen to the hydrogen medium. In a planetary context where this reaction may occur, the Fe-H alloy may sink to the metallic part of the core, while released oxygen may stabilize as water in the silicate layer, providing a mechanism to ingas hydrogen to the deep interiors of sub-Neptunes. Water produced from the redox reaction can also partition to the atmosphere of sub-Neptunes, which has important implications for understanding the composition of their atmospheres. In addition, super-Earths converted from sub-Neptunes may contain a large amount of hydrogen and water in their interiors (at least a few wt% H 2 O). This is distinct from smaller rocky planets, which were formed relatively dry (likely a few hundredths wt% H 2 O).

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2026

Hot Hydrogen Exposure of U x Zr 1-x C y Nuclear Fuel: The Influence of Composition and Density

Refractory carbide nuclear fuel has been one of the most promising fuel candidates for space nuclear propulsion due to its high melting point, temperature stability, and compatibility in a hot hydrogen environment. In this study, U x Zr 1-x C y fuel was produced by means of a carbothermic reduction process in different UC compositions including 5,10, 20, and 30 at.% UC in the fuel compound. The powder feedstock was consolidated via direct current sintering with densities up to 97% of the theoretical density. The samples with different U x Zr 1-x C y compositions were exposed to hot hydrogen at 2600 K for a cumulative time of 300 min. The samples were characterized by SEM, XRD, density, and measured for mass losses. The high-density samples displayed improved performance in hot hydrogen by minimizing porous sites and reducing areas of direct contact with hydrogen gas, leading to reduced mass losses. Variations in sample density proved to induce large changes in mass loss rates, increasing them up to 90%. The compositions with higher UC content reported the largest mass losses in the study. The loss of uranium occurred primarily at the surfaces exposed to the hot hydrogen where changes in the lattice constant confirmed losses exceeding 50% of the initial UC content in higher compositions, specifically to U 0.3 Zr 0.7 C y . XRD analyses revealed the presence of UH 3 in U 0.3 Zr 0.7 C y suggesting that metallic uranium formed inside the sample as a product of carbon losses. High-density U x Zr x-1 C y fuel with UC concentrations at or below 20 at.% UC exhibited stability and negligible density changes in a high temperature hydrogen environment.

11 NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗

DOE OSTI2025

Chemical Reactor Network Modeling of Ammonia Rich-Quench-Lean Combustion Using a Partially Stirred Reactor Approach

Ammonia is a promising alternative to hydrogen with high energy density and favorable storage and transport characteristics. However, low flammability and a propensity for high nitrogen oxide (NO x ) emissions make direct utilization challenging. Recently, two-stage rich-quench-lean (RQL) combustion strategies have shown promise in achieving low NO x emissions with ammonia. In this approach, the rich stage serves to oxidize a portion of the fuel while thermally decomposing as much of the remaining ammonia as possible, generating hydrogen. In the second (lean) stage, air is rapidly introduced, burning out the hydrogen and residual ammonia. Two-stage RQL combustion of ammonia has been investigated in the open literature both experimentally and numerically. In general, idealized chemical reactor network (CRN) models predict NO x concentrations below those of 2D/3D computational fluid dynamics models and experiments. The primary drivers of these discrepancies may be largely attributed to finite rate mixing nonadiabatic operation. The typical CRN model is comprised of a perfectly-stirred-reactor (PSR), followed by a plug-flow-reactor (PFR), meant to represent the flame, and postflame zones, respectively. In the two-stage RQL approach two PSR-PFR networks are arranged sequentially, corresponding to the rich and lean stages, with secondary air injection in between. In the authors' past work, this arrangement has demonstrated the significant sensitivity of exit NO x to the rich stage equivalence ratio, while the amount of secondary air injection was shown to be less critical. In this paper, the CRN model is extended to (1) include the impacts of heat loss and (2) utilize a partially-stirred-reactor (PaSR) approach to study the impacts of mixing on emissions performance. Varying amounts of heat loss are applied to the rich relaxation zone to understand emissions performance and changes to optimization of equivalence ratio and residence time. Premixed and nonpremixed configurations are considered in the rich stage PaSR, with varying degrees of mixing intensity to study the interaction between mixing, transport, and kinetic timescales. Critically, the impact of mixing between hot products and secondary air injection is studied to understand practical injector needs. Results show unburnt ammonia leaving the rich stage as a primary contributor to NO x emissions – driven both by increased heat loss and reduced mixing rates. Furthermore, heat losses have been shown to create conditions that are conducive to increased N 2 O formation in the lean stage. In conclusion, the results of this study will be considered in the context of developing optimized two-stage RQL combustors for ammonia.

Combustion↗

DOE OSTI2022

Liquid Hydrogen Heavy-Duty Vehicle Safety Review and Refueling Facility Design

Liquid hydrogen (LH 2 ) used as a fuel onboard a heavy-duty vehicle can result in increased storage capacity and faster refueling relative to compressed gas. However, there are concerns about hydrogen losses from boil-off, potential safety issues, gaps in codes and standards for cryogenic hydrogen fuel, and technical challenges with LH 2 systems for widespread transportation applications. A failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA), a safety codes and standards review, and a design review of the onboard liquid hydrogen system for a heavy-duty vehicle identified some of these potential safety issues and gaps in the codes and standards. The FMEA identified some medium and low risk failure points of the conceptual design, and the design review identified how carefully pressure relief needs to be considered for LH 2 systems. In addition, a conceptual design for a LH 2 refueling station was developed. Rough capital costs for the refueling station design were $\$1 million$ and the layout occupied approximately 13,000 ft 2 . These results can be used to inform future designs and analyses for LH 2 heavy-duty vehicles.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2024

H2 Sensing with an Optical Fiber Sensor in the Subsurface H2 Storage Conditions

The concentration of hydrogen is subject to change due to biological reactions in the underground hydrogen storage reservoirs. Thus, monitoring hydrogen concentration in the subsurface gas deposits is vital to ensure the integrity and safety of the storage facilities. In this study, the optical fiber hydrogen sensor was developed and validated in relevant subsurface storage environments. Specifically, the sensor has demonstrated successful sensing performance at high temperatures (~80 °C) and high pressures (~1,000 psi) under very humid conditions (~100% RH). In addition, the sensor was exposed to real subsurface microbial samples to monitor microbially induced changes in hydrogen concentration. The sensor has shown stable H2 sensing responses in the replicated underground hydrogen storage conditions without deterioration or loss of H2 sensitivity. The biotic subsurface sample with hydrogen gas resulted in higher transmission intensity change than the abiotic sample due to the possible hydrogen consumption with microbes.

Kim, Daejin↗

DOE OSTI2023

Recent Developments in Sensor Technologies for Enabling the Hydrogen Economy

Efforts to create a sustainable hydrogen economy are gaining momentum as governments all over the world are investing in hydrogen production, storage, distribution, and delivery technologies to develop a hydrogen infrastructure. This involves transporting hydrogen in gaseous or liquid form or using carrier gases such as methane, ammonia, or mixtures of methane and hydrogen. Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless gas and can easily leak into the atmosphere leading to economic loss and safety concerns. Therefore, deployment of robust low-cost sensors for various scenarios involving hydrogen is of paramount importance. Here, we review some recent developments in hydrogen sensors for applications such as leak detection, safety, process monitoring in production, transport and use scenarios. The status of methane and ammonia sensors is covered due to their important role in hydrogen production and transportation using existing natural gas and ammonia infrastructure. This review further provides an overview of existing commercial hydrogen sensors and also addresses the potential for hydrogen as an interferent gas for currently used sensors. This review can help developers and users make informed decisions about how to drive hydrogen sensor technology forward and to incorporate hydrogen sensors into the various hydrogen deployment projects in the coming decade.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2023

Recent Developments in Sensor Technologies for Enabling the Hydrogen Economy

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2026

Capture, storage, and re-use of liquid hydrogen boil-off for aviation and aerospace applications

Despite major interest in the use of liquid hydrogen as a fuel for aviation and aerospace sectors, loss of hydrogen through boil-off continues to be a hurdle as it causes financial loss, indirect greenhouse gas emissions, and safety concerns. Herein, we perform techno-economic analysis, calibrated with experimental measurements, to assess the use of sorbents to capture and condition hydrogen boil-off events in the range of 1.5 to 70 tonnes per day at launch sites and airports. We evaluate the direct delivery of captured boil-off to combustion engines and fuel cells, comparing against boil-off re-liquification and compression. Results indicate probable cost-effectiveness at delivered liquid hydrogen prices above 0.9 U.S. dollar ($) per kg H2 at airports, and above 10 $ per kg H2 at launch sites where 10% or more of hydrogen is lost to boil-off.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2025

Utilization of Existing Pipelines in Hydrogen Transport: Literature Review Report

This report critically reviews the flow behavior of hydrogen-natural gas (H 2 -NG) mixtures in pipelines and examines the critical factors of hydrogen integration into existing natural gas infrastructure. It addresses the choking behavior characterized by velocity increase and pressure drop, as well as the effects of flow restrictions and pressure losses during hydrogen transport. Computational and analytical models are used to investigate these effects, and their effects on thermodynamic properties and system performance are evaluated. The study also reviews the energy efficiency and flow dynamics of hydrogen and methane-hydrogen mixtures and optimizes the hydrogen flow rate. In addition, the effects of these mixtures on the flow characteristics are discussed in detail, with special emphasis on the compressibility factor (z factor) and fluid properties based on equations of state for hydrogen-natural gas mixtures. The study also analyzes the mixture ratios and highlights the thermophysical properties, flow dynamics, and hydrogen-blended natural gas application potential. These investigations assess flow stability, material interactions, and operational feasibility of transporting hydrogen mixtures through natural gas pipelines, which contribute to developing sustainable and efficient energy systems.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2025

Geologic hydrogen: From natural occurrences to anthropogenic generation – A review of fundamentals, potential, challenges and prospects

Growing demand for hydrogen is exposing the environmental and economic limits of reforming-based and carbon-managed supply chains, while the scale-up of electrolytic capacity remains capital-constrained. Geologic hydrogen, defined as molecular H₂ generated and stored within the Earth's crust offers a complementary, potentially lower-cost resource, yet exploration is still ad hoc. This review (1) revisits a global inventory of confirmed hydrogen seeps and subsurface occurrences; (2) analyzes the controlling reactions, migration pathways, and trapping conditions governing these occurrences; (3) proposes a process-based geologic hydrogen system concept analogous to, yet distinct from, the petroleum system; and (4) evaluates potential geologic hydrogen systems within the United States as a representative case study. Here, we contrast natural systems powered by serpentinization, mantle degassing or radiolysis with anthropogenic systems that stimulate the same reactions or convert in-situ hydrocarbons. Stable hydrogen accumulations require generation rates that outpace combined physical, chemical and microbial losses; the Bourakébougou field (Mali) exemplifies a self-recharging, free-gas reservoir sustained by meteoric-water serpentinization beneath an efficient caprock. Prospective geologic hydrogen resources are likely to occur in regions where iron-rich lithologies, deep-seated faults, and low-permeability sealing formations coexist. Applying this principle, we highlight three promising hydrogen play types in U.S. geological terrains: ophiolite belts (Appalachian and Californian regions), the Midcontinent Rift and the Lake Superior banded‑iron formations. Multiphysics numerical models and positive-unlabeled machine-learning workflows help to accelerate play screening and de-risk future production; yet, reaction kinetics, stimulation strategies, and full techno-economic and life-cycle assessments remain pivotal knowledge gaps.

Anthropogenic hydrogen generation↗

DOE OSTI2025

Strain-Based Assessment of Shale Caprock during Cyclic Underground Hydrogen Storage

Successful large-scale underground hydrogen storage (UHS) in depleted gas reservoirs depends on the integrity of the overlying caprock to prevent hydrogen loss during cyclic injection and depletion. Prior studies on crushed Marcellus shale, a potential caprock, indicate that cyclic hydrogen injection and depletion induces microstructural changes, increasing porosity and permeability. However, the extent of these changes in intact shale remains unclear. This study presents a strain-based experimental approach to quantify volumetric strain evolution in intact Marcellus shale matrix under unconstrained stress conditions. A quadrant-shaped shale sample without visible fractures underwent eight hydrostatic pore-pressure cycles (injection to 1500 psi and depletion to 500 psi in 250 psi steps). Linear strain gauges measured strain in three orthogonal directions. Results indicate progressive plastic strain accumulation, leading to an ∼12% increase in matrix porosity after eight cycles, with an estimated 19% increase after 30 cycles. This porosity increase follows a logarithmic trend, suggesting a diminishing effect in later cycles. Additionally, permeability and diffusive mass flux are projected to rise by ∼70% over 30 cycles, enhancing hydrogen migration risk. The shale matrix also exhibited mechanical stiffening over successive cycles, limiting large-scale deformation but not preventing porosity enhancement. A new parameter, α, was introduced to characterize shale sensitivity to cyclic loading, aiding UHS caprock assessments. These findings underscore the necessity of incorporating cyclic loading effects in UHS site selection and operational strategies to ensure long-term storage integrity.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2026

Radiolytic Gas Generation and Pressure Buildup in a Closed System Containing Mo-99 Solution

This study measured radiolytic gas generation and pressure buildup in a sealed stainless-steel system containing alkaline Mo-99 solution with added sodium nitrate as a hydrogen suppressant. In each of two experiments, approximately 200 Ci of Mo-99 solution was transferred into a closed experimental vessel inside a hot cell, isolated, and monitored for pressure rise caused by gas generation during radioactive decay. After pressure buildup, headspace gas samples were collected and analyzed by mass spectrometry to determine hydrogen and oxygen concentrations. The purpose was to quantify the magnitude of pressure buildup in a closed system and to characterize the gas composition produced by radiolysis of the Mo-99 target solution under representative handling and storage conditions. The two experiments used similar total Mo-99 activity but differed in solution volume, headspace volume, and leak integrity. In the first experiment, 197.5 Ci of Mo-99 in 16.92 mL of solution was loaded into a vessel with a 31.1-mL headspace; a small leak was later identified, and the measured peak pressure of 46 psig was extrapolated to about 70 psig in the absence of leakage. The headspace gas from this experiment contained about 21.4% H2 and 63.4% O2, but the composition was influenced by preferential hydrogen loss through the leak. In the second experiment, 193 Ci of Mo-99 in 5.41 mL of solution with 0.46 g NaNO3 was loaded into a vessel with a larger 42.61 mL headspace, and no detectable leak was observed. This experiment reached a peak pressure of 38 psig, and the measured gas composition was approximately 28.2% H2 and 51.5% O2. Because the second experiment was leak-free, it is considered the more reliable indicator of the true pressure buildup and intrinsic radiolytic gas composition of the Mo-99 solution.

Chemerisov, Sergey D.↗

DOE OSTI2022

Techno-Economic Evaluation of Strategies to Approach Net-Zero Carbon Sustainable Aviation Fuel via Woody Biomass Gasification and Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis

Reducing the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from the transportation industry is a key target for achieving global net-zero carbon goals. Wide-spread electrification, efficient engine design, and alternative fuel implementations have been introduced for light-duty vehicles and are projected to significantly reduce light-duty emissions in the near future. Conversely, the aviation sector contributes considerably towards transportation-based carbon emissions, but current projections do not show substantial reductions in carbon emissions over time. Challenges for the aviation sector include low compatibility with electrification, relative inflexibility to variations in fuel properties, and requirement of high energy density fuels. Thus, identifying pathways to decarbonize the aviation sector via liquid low- or net-zero carbon biofuels that are compatible with current aviation infrastructure is crucial. This work investigates the economic feasibility of approaching net-zero carbon sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) from woody biomass via gasification and Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. In doing so, this assessment identifies the economic opportunities and trade-offs of several carbon mitigation strategies coupled with renewable resource interventions required to approach net-zero carbon fuels via biomass. Renewable natural gas and green hydrogen utilization strategies are assessed to examine the impact of fuel yield improvements versus renewable resource cost. Additionally, both carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) and carbon capture and utilization (CCU) are considered in this analysis to help mitigate carbon loss to the atmosphere. Each scenario was assessed on cost, carbon efficiency, energy efficiency, and overall technology-readiness level (TRL). The results of this analysis show that renewable natural gas, green hydrogen, and CCS can be viewed as a low-cost, near-term carbon abatement strategies. However, in the long-term, deployment of more expensive and less technologically mature CCU technologies can make use of point sources of CO2 to boost overall fuel production.

aviation fuel↗

DOE OSTI2023

The Impact of Oxidation-Induced Degradation On Materials Used in Hydrogen-Fired Microturbines

Hydrogen-fueled microturbines are being considered as part of the future green microgrid. However, the use of hydrogen as a fuel presents new challenges for selection and development of suitable high temperature materials for hydrogen combustion. The burning of hydrogen is expected to result in higher operating temperatures and higher than typically observed water vapor contents in exhaust gases versus burning natural gas. In the present work, foil specimens of various Fe- and Ni-based alloys were oxidized in air + 10 % H 2 O and air + 60% H 2 O for up to 5,000 h at 700 °C to simulate the exhaust atmosphere of natural gas and hydrogen-fueled microturbines. Here, the impact of alloy composition and water vapor content on the oxidation/ volatilization induced loss of wall thickness was experimentally evaluated. Enhanced external oxidation and volatilization of Cr 2 O 3 and Ti-doped Cr 2 O 3 scales was observed in air + 60% H 2 O compared to air + 10% H 2 O. No significant impact of the higher water vapor content was observed on Al 2 O 3 scales formed on Fe-based alumina forming alloys. Lifetime modeling was employed to predict the combined effects of water vapor content, gas flow rates, temperature and alloy composition on the oxidation-induced lifetime of the investigated materials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2021

Precision measurement of the electron energy-loss function in tritium and deuterium gas for the KATRIN experiment

Abstract The KATRIN experiment is designed for a direct and model-independent determination of the effective electron anti-neutrino mass via a high-precision measurement of the tritium $$\upbeta $$ β -decay endpoint region with a sensitivity on $$m_\nu $$ m ν of 0.2 $$\hbox {eV}/\hbox {c}^2$$ eV / c 2 (90% CL). For this purpose, the $$\upbeta $$ β -electrons from a high-luminosity windowless gaseous tritium source traversing an electrostatic retarding spectrometer are counted to obtain an integral spectrum around the endpoint energy of 18.6 keV. A dominant systematic effect of the response of the experimental setup is the energy loss of $$\upbeta $$ β -electrons from elastic and inelastic scattering off tritium molecules within the source. We determined the energy-loss function in-situ with a pulsed angular-selective and monoenergetic photoelectron source at various tritium-source densities. The data was recorded in integral and differential modes; the latter was achieved by using a novel time-of-flight technique. We developed a semi-empirical parametrization for the energy-loss function for the scattering of 18.6-keV electrons from hydrogen isotopologs. This model was fit to measurement data with a 95% $$\hbox {T}_2$$ T 2 gas mixture at 30 K, as used in the first KATRIN neutrino-mass analyses, as well as a $$\hbox {D}_2$$ D 2 gas mixture of 96% purity used in KATRIN commissioning runs. The achieved precision on the energy-loss function has abated the corresponding uncertainty of $$\sigma (m_\nu ^2)< {{10}^{-2}}{\hbox {eV}^{2}}$$ σ ( m ν 2 ) < 10 - 2 eV 2 [1] in the KATRIN neutrino-mass measurement to a subdominant level.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗

DOE OSTI2022

Hydrogen Storage for Flexible Fossil Fuel Power Generation: Integration of Underground Hydrogen Storage with Gas Turbine (Final Report)

As the nation continues to encourage, through market structures and financial incentives, the proliferation of intermittent renewable electricity, how to optimize the ever-changing electric grid and identify means to retain and improve resilience, while ensuring continued reductions in GHG emissions, will be critical. According to Bloomberg, wind & solar generated 10.5% of US electricity in 2020 and that percentage continues to grow. In support of expanding renewable energy use, and to address its intermittent nature, this project will develop the Hydrogen Storage for Flexible Fossil Fuel Power Generation platform that is dispatchable, reliable, repeatable and have the ability to produce zero or negative carbon power while interfacing with geology capable of CO2 and hydrogen storage. GTI Energy (GTIE) and team members Illinois State Geological Survey (ISGS), Mitsubishi Heavy Industries America (MHIA), Ameren Illinois, Hexagon Purus, and the Low Carbon Resources Initiative (LCRI) completed a Phase I Conceptual Study under contract DE-FE0032012 for Hydrogen Storage for Flexible Fossil Fuel Power Generation: Integration of Underground Hydrogen Storage with Gas Turbine. The Hydrogen Storage for Flexible Fossil Fuel Power Generation platform addresses the intermittent nature of the expanding use of Variable Renewable Energy (VRE) generation. The low cost of the electricity (COE) generated results in greater dispatch and more operation at higher power levels (higher efficiency), fewer short intervals, and fewer start/stop cycles. The reliable, resilient system can produce zero carbon power and store hydrogen. It will demonstrate hydrogen storage in geologic formations like those used in natural gas underground storage thus enabling large scale storage of hydrogen in sedimentary strata across the United States rather than in geographically restricted salt caverns. The Phase I study confirmed the system is feasible and generates power at lower cost than other low carbon approaches. The demonstration defines the pathway for broad commercial application and will accelerate the development of larger systems suitable for centralized utility scale electricity production. The study advanced the maturity of the H 2 storage-based system with flexible power generation by completing a Pre-FEED study (Phase II). The Pre-FEED focused on the selected Energy Farm on the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) site that includes above ground and underground hydrogen storage, low-carbon hydrogen production (GTI’s Compact Hydrogen Generator, CHG) with underground CO2 sequestration, and a 40-MW class gas turbine. The Pre-FEED addressed the entire system and its interconnection to the natural gas and electric grid and mitigation of key risks, such as storage behavior, load-following, and system operation. During Phase 1 of the project, the team completed key tasks, which moved the entire demonstration project, specific components and approaches closer to commercialization. These Phase I Accomplishments include: Completing System Requirements Review; Completing System Layout and Modeling - Heat & Mass Balance and Process Flow Diagram; Completing modelling of 9 turbine performance cases; Evaluating rock strata for underground storage of hydrogen and sequestration of carbon dioxide; Completing initial modelling of underground storage of hydrogen and withdrawal with evaluation of loss and water production; Identifying roadable storage for above ground hydrogen storage; Identifying existing electrical infrastructure for receiving/delivering electricity; Identifying existing gas supply infrastructure for receiving natural gas; Document concept design/development plans in required reports. Conclusions: The 12-month Feasibility study in Phase I study was completed and confirmed the system is feasible and generates power at lower cost than other low carbon approaches and even lower cost than the reference NGCC plant without carbon capture when taking advantage of 45Q carbon credits. The study enabled the fidelity of the concept to be improved and allowed identification of the requirements for the system. Defining the individual system and component requirements was performed via the system requirements review with the whole team. These requirements were then incorporated into and iterated with our Heat & Mass Balance process model and process flow diagrams were generated to reflect the overall system. This information was then used to complete the TEA and show economic feasibility. Large scale non-salt geologic storage of hydrogen is an enabling technology for a hydrogen-fired turbine that can be retrofitted into large-scale electric generating units (EGU). Our demonstration will include 428 MWh or ~4 hours full load of hydrogen storage (above and underground). Carbon capture inherent to the CHG process can capture 90% CO 2 (with upgrades to >98%). This system provides a COE of 23% savings relative to an NGCC with a post combustion amine system. Our proposed storage system decouples carbon capture and hydrogen production from power production; therefore, we expect our proposed system’s efficiency and variable COE to be superior resulting in overall higher dispatch and reduced deep cycling. Our demonstration will be full to multi-day hydrogen storage and has the potential for longer (seasonal) duration commercially. The demonstration defines the pathway for broad commercial application and will accelerate the development of larger systems suitable for centralized utility scale electricity production.

03 NATURAL GAS↗