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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS2025

Airports as Energy Nodes Activity Summary

Advanced aircraft concepts that use non-traditional aviation energy storage methods such as batteries or cryogenic hydrogen are in development and expected to enter regular service at airports worldwide within the next decade. The energy needs for these aircraft may quickly overwhelm the existing energy infrastructure at airports, particularly at smaller and more remote facilities. Without energy upgrades, these airports will not be able to host these advanced vehicles, but without the advanced vehicle traffic, these airports will not have the rationale or funding to build up their energy infrastructure. The Airports as Energy Nodes (ÆNodes) activity, a collaboration between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), was executed to understand and model the energy needs that advanced aircraft concepts may levy on these smaller airports, determine cost-effective approaches to enhance the airport energy infrastructure, and demonstrate the enhanced resilience of these energy infrastructure upgrades to the airport and surrounding community via “digital twin” simulation at relevant energy and dynamic time scales. The ÆNodes team also investigated future reference aircraft designs and materials to enable cryogenic hydrogen storage for aircraft. The ÆNodes team conducted analysis at two U.S. airport partner sites — Winchester Regional Airport in Winchester, Virginia, and Tweed/New Haven Airport in New Haven, Connecticut. The goal of this partnership was to develop data and reference infrastructure designs that could accommodate advanced aircraft in the future at these airports while also enhancing the resiliency of the energy supply to the surrounding airport community, which could be used to capture funding to enable the infrastructure upgrades. Over the course of the study, a method was developed to estimate air traffic requiring advanced energy services over the course of a year using a mix of historical data and companion studies on advanced aircraft transportation networks. The study has concluded at NASA but continues at NREL, who will develop a final report discussing the energy infrastructure upgrades and digital twin results. Preliminary results indicate that unrestricted adoption of advanced battery-electric aircraft may double traffic at these airports and increase peak daily power usage by an order of magnitude, while increase electricity energy needs by a factor of two to four. The infrastructure upgrades necessary to accommodate these increased energy needs could be used to provide enhanced energy services to the airport community to offset the cost and increase the utility of the upgrades, which will be described in the NREL final report.

Airports↗
NASA NTRS2007

Numerical Modeling of Propellant Boil-Off in a Cryogenic Storage Tank

A numerical model to predict boil-off of stored propellant in large spherical cryogenic tanks has been developed. Accurate prediction of tank boil-off rates for different thermal insulation systems was the goal of this collaboration effort. The Generalized Fluid System Simulation Program, integrating flow analysis and conjugate heat transfer for solving complex fluid system problems, was used to create the model. Calculation of tank boil-off rate requires simultaneous simulation of heat transfer processes among liquid propellant, vapor ullage space, and tank structure. The reference tank for the boil-off model was the 850,000 gallon liquid hydrogen tank at Launch Complex 39B (LC- 39B) at Kennedy Space Center, which is under study for future infrastructure improvements to support the Constellation program. The methodology employed in the numerical model was validated using a sub-scale model and tank. Experimental test data from a 1/15th scale version of the LC-39B tank using both liquid hydrogen and liquid nitrogen were used to anchor the analytical predictions of the sub-scale model. Favorable correlations between sub-scale model and experimental test data have provided confidence in full-scale tank boil-off predictions. These methods are now being used in the preliminary design for other cases including future launch vehicles

Majumdar, A. K.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

NASA's Space Launch System Begins Integration, Stacking in Preparation for Artemis I Launch

The Artemis era of human lunar exploration is nearing take-off as NASA’s new super heavy-lift launch vehicle, the Space Launch System (SLS), begins stack-ing and integration operations in mid-2020 at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida. With a planned upgrade path to progressively more powerful vehicles and availability in crew and cargo configurations, SLS provides a unique and flexible launch solution to send crew, large-scale infrastructure and robotic probes to deep space. The SLS Block 1 vehicle, the initial variant to fly, is optimized for lunar missions with a proven propulsion system consisting of four liquid hydrogen (LH2)/liquid oxygen (LOX)-fed RS-25 engines and twin five-segment solid rocket boosters (SRBs). The Block 1 vehicle can also be outfitted with an industry-standard 5 m-class payload fairing (the “cargo” configuration) and will launch at least 27 metric tons (t) of mass to trans-lunar injection (TLI). SLS is the backbone of NASA’s Artemis program, which will return the agency’s human spaceflight program to the Moon for the first time since 1972. For the Artemis I mission, SLS will send an uncrewed Orion spacecraft to TLI, where it will enter a distant retrograde lunar orbit and fly 38,000 nmi past the Moon – farther than any spacecraft built for humans has ever traveled. The SLS Block 1 vehicle for Artemis I completed manufacturing in 2019. Several elements, including the upper stage, have been delivered to the Exploration Ground Systems (EGS) program at KSC and are being prepped for integration and stack-ing. The five-segment solid rocket boosters – the largest and most powerful ever built for flight – are also complete. The booster motor segments for the Artemis I flight are scheduled to ship from prime contractor Northrop Grumman’s Utah facilities and begin stacking and integration at KSC in June 2020. The SLS core stage is the largest rocket stage NASA has ever built in terms of volume and height, and includes the avionics and the tanks that feed cryogenic propellant to the four RS-25s (formerly Space Shuttle Main Engines [SSMEs]). They have been modified with an updated controller and nozzle insulation to protect them from the hotter launch environment. The SLS core stage is currently being test-ed at NASA’s Stennis Space Center (SSC) in a series of “green run” tests to verify it meets design and performance requirements. Following the green run test series, which is scheduled to culminate with a full-duration hot-fire of the four RS-25 engines, the core stage will ship to KSC and be stacked between the sol-id rocket boosters in the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB). Integration of the vehicle will continue with the upper stage, known as the Interim Cryogenic Propulsion Stage (ICPS) and the Launch Vehicle Stage Adapter (LVSA) on the core stage. Another adapter, the Orion Stage Adapter (OSA), connects SLS to Orion and provides housing for 13 6U CubeSat payloads manifested on Artemis I. The CubeSats will be released in deep space after Orion separates from the vehicle, and the flight marks the first ride share opportunity for independent small-sats to deep space. The second major SLS variant to come online, Block 1B, replaces the single-engine ICPS with a four-engine LH2/LOX Exploration Upper Stage (EUS). This more powerful upper stage, along with other vehicle up-grades, will enable the Block 1B vehicle to launch 38-42 t to TLI, depending on crew or cargo configuration. The final evolution of the vehicle, Block 2, will onramp evolved solid rocket boosters to increase mass to TLI to 43-46 t, de-pending on crew or cargo configuration. The Block 1B/Block 2 vehicles can be outfitted with an 8.4 m-diameter payload fairing in 19.1 m or 27.4 m lengths, to provide unprecedented volume for payloads. With the initial Block 1 vehicle completely manufactured and the core stage in final testing before shipping to KSC, the SLS Program and its industry partners have made significant progress manufacturing subsequent vehicles. For the second Block 1 vehicle, the solid rocket motor segments are complete, as are the RS-25 engines with controllers. All five major components of the Artemis II core stage – the forward skirt, LOX and LH2 tanks, intertank and engine section – are manufactured and technicians are installing subsystems at NASA’s rocket factory, Michoud Assembly Facility. The RL-10 engine for the Artemis II ICPS is complete and panels have been machined for its LH2 tank. In addition, panels are machined for the vehicle’s two adapters, with welding scheduled to begin in summer 2020. Flight hard-ware is also in production for the third SLS vehicle, with several booster motor segments cast. The pace of development on the EUS has increased, with the goal to complete Critical Design Review (CDR) in December 2020. Several EUS test rings have been machined at Michoud. The EUS is designed to exe-cute a variety of missions – human spaceflight, deployment of deep-space infra-structure, or high-C3 missions to the outer solar system – with crew and cargo configurations available beginning in the mid-2020s. The near-term goal for the nation’s powerful new space exploration asset, however, is to launch the Arte-mis program, and send the first woman and the next man to the lunar surface. At the Astrodynamics Specialist Conference, the SLS program will update the community on the progress of the initial Block 1 vehicle in final green run test-ing, integration and stacking. In addition, this paper will provide an update to the community on the manufacturing status of subsequent Block 1 and Block 1B vehicles.

Steve Creech↗
NASA NTRS2003

Recent Advances in Hydrogen Peroxide Propulsion Test Capability at NASA's Stennis Space Center E-Complex

In recent years, the rocket propulsion test capability at NASA's John C. Stennis Space Center's (SSC) E-Complex has been enhanced to include facilitization for hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) based ground testing. In particular, the E-3 test stand has conducted numerous test projects that have been reported in the open literature. These include combustion devices as simple as small-scale catalyst beds, and larger devices such as ablative thrust chambers and a flight-type engine (AR2-3). Consequently, the NASA SSC test engineering and operations knowledge base and infrastructure have grown considerably in order to conduct safe H2O2 test operations with a variety of test articles at the component and engine level. Currently, the E-Complex has a test requirement for a hydrogen peroxide based stage test. This new development, with its unique set of requirements, has motivated the facilitization for hydrogen peroxide propellant use at the E-2 Cell 2 test position in addition to E-3. Since the E-2 Cell 2 test position was not originally designed as a hydrogen peroxide test stand, a facility modernization-improvement project was planned and implemented in FY 2002-03 to enable this vertical engine test stand to accomodate H2O2. This paper discusses the ongoing enhancement of E-Complex ground test capability, specifically at the E-3 stand (Cell 1 and Cell 2) and E-2 Cell 2 stand, that enable current and future customers considerable test flexibility and operability in conducting their peroxide based rocket R&D efforts.

Jacks, Thomas E.↗
NASA NTRS2003

Expanding Hydrogen Peroxide Propulsion Test Capability at NASA's Stennis Space Center E-Complex

In recent years, the rocket propulsion test capability at NASA s John C. Stennis Space Center's (SSC) E-Complex has been enhanced to include facilitization for hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) based ground testing. In particular, the E-3 test stand has conducted numerous test projects that have been reported in the open literature. These include combustion devices as simple at small-scale catalyst beds, and larger devices such as ablative thrust chambers and a flight-type engine (AR2-3). Consequently, the NASA SSC test engineering and operations knowledge base and infrastructure have grown considerably in order to conduct safe H2O2 test operations with a variety of test articles at the component and engine level. Currently, the E-Complex has a test requirement for a hydrogen peroxide based stage test. This new development, with its unique set of requirements, has motivated the facilitization for hydrogen peroxide propellant use at the E-2 Cell 2 test position in addition to E-3. Since the E-2 Cell 2 test position was not originally designed as a hydrogen peroxide test stand, a facility modernization- improvement project was planned and implemented in FY 2002-03 to enable this vertical engine test stand to accommodate H2O2. This paper discusses the ongoing enhancement of E-Complex ground test capability, specifically at the E-3 stand (Cell 1 and Cell 2) and E-2 Cell 2 stand, that enable current and future customers considerable test flexibility and operability in conducting their peroxide based rocket R&D efforts.

Jacks, Thomas E.↗
NASA NTRS2008

Hydrogen Research for Spaceport and Space-Based Applications: Hydrogen Production, Storage, and Transport

The activities presented are a broad based approach to advancing key hydrogen related technologies in areas such as fuel cells, hydrogen production, and distributed sensors for hydrogen-leak detection, laser instrumentation for hydrogen-leak detection, and cryogenic transport and storage. Presented are the results from research projects, education and outreach activities, system and trade studies. The work will aid in advancing the state-of-the-art for several critical technologies related to the implementation of a hydrogen infrastructure. Activities conducted are relevant to a number of propulsion and power systems for terrestrial, aeronautics and aerospace applications. Hydrogen storage and in-space hydrogen transport research focused on developing and verifying design concepts for efficient, safe, lightweight liquid hydrogen cryogenic storage systems. Research into hydrogen production had a specific goal of further advancing proton conducting membrane technology in the laboratory at a larger scale. System and process trade studies evaluated the proton conducting membrane technology, specifically, scale-up issues.

Anderson, Tim↗
NASA NTRS2019

Key Technologies, Systems, and Infrastructure Enabling the Commercialization and Human Settlement of the Moon and Cislunar Space

Over 50 years have passed since 2001: A Space Odyssey debuted in April 1968. In the film, Dr. Heywood Floydflies to a large artificial gravity space station orbiting Earth aboard a commercial space plane. He then embarks on acommuter flight to the Moon arriving there 25 hours later. Today, in this the 50th anniversary year of the Apollo 11lunar landing, the images portrayed in 2001 still remain well beyond our capabilities. This paper examines keytechnologies and systems (e.g., in-situ resource utilization, fission power, advanced chemical and nuclearpropulsion), and supporting orbital infrastructure (providing a propellant and cargo transfer function), that could bedeveloped by NASA and industry over the next 30 years allowing the operational capabilities presented in 2001 to beachieved, albeit on a more spartan scale. Lunar-derived propellants (LDPs) will be essential to developing a reusablelunar transportation system that can allow initial outposts to evolve into settlements supporting a variety ofcommercial activities. Deposits of icy regolith discovered at the lunar poles can supply the feedstock material neededto produce liquid oxygen (LO2) and hydrogen (LH2) propellants. On the lunar nearside, near the equator, iron oxiderichvolcanic glass beads from vast pyroclastic deposits, together with mare regolith, can provide the feedstockmaterials to produce lunar-derived LO2 plus other important solar wind implanted (SWI) volatiles, including H2and helium-3. Megawatt-class fission power systems will be essential for providing continuous "24/7" power toprocessing plants, human settlements and commercial enterprises that develop on the Moon and in orbit. Reusablelunar landing vehicles will provide cargo and passenger "orbit-to-surface" access and will also transport LDP toSpace Transportation Nodes (STNs) located in lunar polar (LPO) and equatorial orbits (LLO). Reusable space-based,lunar transfer vehicles (LTVs), operating between STNs in low Earth orbit, LLO, and LPO, and able to refuel withLDPs, offer unique mission capabilities including short transit time crewed cargo transports. Even commuter flightssimilar to that portrayed in 2001 appear possible, allowing 1-way trip times to and from the Moon as short as 24hours. The performance of LTVs using both RL10B-2 chemical rockets, and a variant of the nuclear thermal rocket(NTR), the LO2-Augmented NTR (LANTR), are examined and compared. If only 1% of the LDP obtained from icyregolith, volcanic glass, and SWI volatile deposits were available for use in lunar orbit, such a supply could supportroutine commuter flights to the Moon for many thousands of years. This paper provides a look ahead at what mightbe possible in the not too distant future, quantifies the operational characteristics of key in-space and surfacetechnologies and systems, and provides conceptual designs for the various architectural elements discussed.

Borowski, Stanley K.↗
NASA NTRS2019

Key Technologies, Systems, and Infrastructure Enabling the Commercialization and Human Settlement of the Moon and Cislunar Space

Over 50 years have passed since 2001: A Space Odyssey debuted in April 1968. In the film, Dr. Heywood Floydflies to a large artificial gravity space station orbiting Earth aboard a commercial space plane. He then embarks on acommuter flight to the Moon arriving there 25 hours later. Today, in this the 50th anniversary year of the Apollo 11lunar landing, the images portrayed in 2001 still remain well beyond our capabilities. This paper examines keytechnologies and systems (e.g., in-situ resource utilization, fission power, advanced chemical and nuclearpropulsion), and supporting orbital infrastructure (providing a propellant and cargo transfer function), that could bedeveloped by NASA and industry over the next 30 years allowing the operational capabilities presented in 2001 to beachieved, albeit on a more spartan scale. Lunar-derived propellants (LDPs) will be essential to developing a reusablelunar transportation system that can allow initial outposts to evolve into settlements supporting a variety ofcommercial activities. Deposits of icy regolith discovered at the lunar poles can supply the feedstock material neededto produce liquid oxygen (LO2) and hydrogen (LH2) propellants. On the lunar nearside, near the equator, iron oxiderichvolcanic glass beads from vast pyroclastic deposits, together with mare regolith, can provide the feedstockmaterials to produce lunar-derived LO2 plus other important solar wind implanted (SWI) volatiles, including H2and helium-3. Megawatt-class fission power systems will be essential for providing continuous "24/7" power toprocessing plants, human settlements and commercial enterprises that develop on the Moon and in orbit. Reusablelunar landing vehicles will provide cargo and passenger "orbit-to-surface" access and will also transport LDP to Space Transportation Nodes (STNs) located in lunar polar (LPO) and equatorial orbits (LLO). Reusable space-based,lunar transfer vehicles (LTVs), operating between STNs in low Earth orbit, LLO, and LPO, and able to refuel with LDPs, offer unique mission capabilities including short transit time crewed cargo transports. Even commuter flights similar to that portrayed in 2001 appear possible, allowing 1-way trip times to and from the Moon as short as 24hours. The performance of LTVs using both RL10B-2 chemical rockets, and a variant of the nuclear thermal rocket(NTR), the LO2-Augmented NTR (LANTR), are examined and compared. If only 1% of the LDP obtained from icyregolith, volcanic glass, and SWI volatile deposits were available for use in lunar orbit, such a supply could support routine commuter flights to the Moon for many thousands of years. This paper provides a look ahead at what might be possible in the not too distant future, quantifies the operational characteristics of key in-space and surface technologies and systems, and provides conceptual designs for the various architectural elements discussed.

Borowski, Stanley K.↗
NASA NTRS2001

The Advanced Technology Development Center (ATDC)

NASA is building the Advanced Technology Development Center (ATDC) to provide a 'national resource' for the research, development, demonstration, testing, and qualification of Spaceport and Range Technologies. The ATDC will be located at Space Launch Complex 20 (SLC-20) at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS) in Florida. SLC-20 currently provides a processing and launch capability for small-scale rockets; this capability will be augmented with additional ATDC facilities to provide a comprehensive and integrated in situ environment. Examples of Spaceport Technologies that will be supported by ATDC infrastructure include densified cryogenic systems, intelligent automated umbilicals, integrated vehicle health management systems, next-generation safety systems, and advanced range systems. The ATDC can be thought of as a prototype spaceport where industry, government, and academia, in partnership, can work together to improve safety of future space initiatives. The ATDC is being deployed in five separate phases. Major ATDC facilities will include a Liquid Oxygen Area; a Liquid Hydrogen Area, a Liquid Nitrogen Area, and a multipurpose Launch Mount; 'Iron Rocket' Test Demonstrator; a Processing Facility with a Checkout and Control System; and Future Infrastructure Developments. Initial ATDC development will be completed in 2006.

Clements, G. R.↗
NASA NTRS2019

Commercialization and Human Settlement of the Moon and Cislunar Space – A Look Ahead at the Possibilities over the Next 50 Years

Over 50 years have passed since the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey debuted in April 1968. In the film, Dr. Heywood Floyd flies to a large artificial gravity space station orbiting Earth aboard a commercial space plane. He then embarks on a commuter flight to the Moon arriving there 25hours later. Today, on the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 lunar landing, the images portrayed in 2001 still remain well beyond our capabilities. This paper examines key technologies and systems (in-situ resource utilization, fission power, advanced chemical and nuclear propulsion),and orbiting infrastructure elements (providing a propellant depot and cargo transfer function),that could be developed by NASA and the private sector in future decades allowing the operational capabilities presented in 2001 to be achieved, albeit on a more spartan scale. Lunar derived propellants (LDPs) will be essential to reducing the launch mass requirements from Earth and developing a reusable lunar transportation system (LTS) that can allow initial outposts to evolve into settlements supporting a variety of commercial activities like in-situ propellant production. Deposits of icy regolith found within permanently shadowed craters at the lunar pole scan supply the feedstock material to produce liquid oxygen (LO2) and hydrogen (LH2) propellan tneeded by surface-based lunar landing vehicles (LLVs) using chemical rocket engines. Along the Moon's nearside equatorial corridor, iron oxide-rich volcanic glass beads from vast pyroclasticdeposits, together with mare regolith, can provide the materials to produce lunar-derived LO2plus other important solar wind implanted (SWI) volatiles, including H2 and helium-3. Mega watt classfission power systems will be essential for providing continuous "24/7" power to LLVs will provide cargo and passenger "orbit-to-surface" access and willalso be used to transport LDP to Space Transportation Nodes (STNs) located in lunar polar(LPO) and equatorial orbits (LLO). Spaced-based, reusable lunar transfer vehicles (LTVs),operating between STNs in low Earth orbit (LEO), LLO, and LPO, and able to refuel with LDPs,can offer unique mission capabilities including short transit time crewed cargo transports. Even acommuter shuttle service similar to that portrayed in 2001 appears possible, allowing 1-way trip times to and from the Moon as short as 24 hours. The performance of LTVs using both RL10B-2chemical rockets, and a variant of the nuclear thermal rocket (NTR), the LO2-Augmented NTR(LANTR), are examined and compared. The bipropellant LANTR engine utilizes its divergent nozzle section as an afterburner into which oxygen is injected and supersonically combusted with reactor-heated hydrogen emerging from the engine's sonic throat. If only 1% of the LDP obtained from icy regolith, volcanic glass, and SWI volatile deposits were available for use in lunar orbit,such a supply could support routine commuter flights to the Moon for many thousands of years!This paper provides a look ahead at what might be possible in the not too distant future,quantifies the operational characteristics of key in-space and surface technologies and systems,and provides conceptual designs for the various architectural elements discussed.

Borowski, Stanley K.↗
NASA NTRS2019

Commercial and Human Settlement of the Moon and Cislunar Space – A Look Ahead at the Possibilities over the Next 50 Years

Over 50 years have passed since the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey debuted in April 1968. In the film, Dr. Heywood Floyd flies to a large artificial gravity space station orbiting Earth aboard a commercial space plane. He then embarks on a commuter flight to the Moon arriving there 25 hours later. Today, on the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 lunar landing, the images portrayed in 2001 still remain well beyond our capabilities. This paper examines key technologies and systems (in-situ resource utilization, fission power, advanced chemical and nuclear propulsion), and orbiting infrastructure elements (providing a propellant depot and cargo transfer function), that could be developed by NASA and the private sector in future decades allowing the operational capabilities presented in 2001 to be achieved, albeit on a more spartan scale. Lunar-derived propellants (LDPs) will be essential to reducing the launch mass requirements from Earth and developing a reusable lunar transportation system (LTS) that can allow initial outposts to evolve into settlements supporting a variety of commercial activities like in-situ propellant production. Deposits of icy regolith found within permanently shadowed craters at the lunar poles can supply the feedstock material to produce liquid oxygen (LO2) and hydrogen (LH2) propellant needed by surface-based lunar landing vehicles (LLVs) using chemical rocket engines. Along the Moon’s nearside equatorial corridor, iron oxide-rich volcanic glass beads from vast pyroclastic deposits, together with mare regolith, can provide the materials to produce lunar-derived LO2 plus other important solar wind implanted (SWI) volatiles, including H2 and helium-3. Megawatt-class fission power systems will be essential for providing continuous “24/7” power to processing plants, evolving human settlements, and other commercial activities that develop on the Moon and in orbit. Reusable LLVs will provide cargo and passenger “orbit-to-surface” access and will also be used to transport LDP to Space Transportation Nodes (STNs) located in lunar polar (LPO) and equatorial orbits (LLO). Spaced-based, reusable lunar transfer vehicles (LTVs), operating between STNs in low Earth orbit (LEO), LLO, and LPO, and able to refuel with LDPs, can offer unique mission capabilities including short transit time crewed cargo transports. Even a commuter shuttle service similar to that portrayed in 2001 appears possible, allowing 1-way trip times to and from the Moon as short as 24 hours. The performance of LTVs using both RL10B-2 chemical rockets, and a variant of the nuclear thermal rocket (NTR), the LO2-Augmented NTR (LANTR), are examined and compared. The bipropellant LANTR engine utilizes its divergent nozzle section as an afterburner into which oxygen is injected and supersonically combusted with reactor-heated hydrogen emerging from the engine’s sonic throat. If only 1% of the LDP obtained from icy regolith, volcanic glass, and SWI volatile deposits were available for use in lunar orbit, such a supply could support routine commuter flights to the Moon for many thousands of years! This paper provides a look ahead at what might be possible in the not too distant future, quantifies the operational characteristics of key in-space and surface technologies and systems, and provides conceptual designs for the various architectural elements discussed.

Borowski, Stanley K.↗
NASA NTRS2011

Liquid Methane Conditioning Capabilities Developed at the NASA Glenn Research Center's Small Multi- Purpose Research Facility (SMiRF) for Accelerated Lunar Surface Storage Thermal Testing

Glenn Research Center s Creek Road Cryogenic Complex, Small Multi-Purpose Research Facility (SMiRF) recently completed validation / checkout testing of a new liquid methane delivery system and liquid methane (LCH4) conditioning system. Facility checkout validation was conducted in preparation for a series of passive thermal control technology tests planned at SMiRF in FY10 using a flight-like propellant tank at simulated thermal environments from 140 to 350K. These tests will validate models and provide high quality data to support consideration of LCH4/LO2 propellant combination option for a lunar or planetary ascent stage.An infrastructure has been put in place which will support testing of large amounts of liquid methane at SMiRF. Extensive modifications were made to the test facility s existing liquid hydrogen system for compatibility with liquid methane. Also, a new liquid methane fluid conditioning system will enable liquid methane to be quickly densified (sub-cooled below normal boiling point) and to be quickly reheated to saturation conditions between 92 and 140 K. Fluid temperatures can be quickly adjusted to compress the overall test duration. A detailed trade study was conducted to determine an appropriate technique to liquid conditioning with regard to the SMiRF facility s existing infrastructure. In addition, a completely new roadable dewar has been procured for transportation and temporary storage of liquid methane. A new spherical, flight-representative tank has also been fabricated for integration into the vacuum chamber at SMiRF. The addition of this system to SMiRF marks the first time a large-scale liquid methane propellant test capability has been realized at Glenn.This work supports the Cryogenic Fluid Management Project being conducted under the auspices of the Exploration Technology Development Program, providing focused cryogenic fluid management technology efforts to support NASA s future robotic or human exploration missions.

Bamberger, Helmut H.↗
NASA NTRS1991

Costs and benefits of lunar oxygen: Engineering, operations, and economics

Oxygen is the most commonly discussed lunar resource. It will certainly not be the easiest to retrieve, but oxygen's fundamental place in propulsion and life support guarantees it continued attention as a prime candidate for early in situ resource utilization (ISRU). The findings are reviewed of recent investigation, sponsored by NASA-Ames, into the kinds of technologies, equipment, and scenarios (the engineering and operations costs) that will be required even to initiate lunar oxygen production. The infrastructure necessary to surround and support a viable oxygen-processing operation is explained. Selected details are used to illustrate the depth of technology challenges, extent of operations burdens, and complexity of decision linkages. Basic assumptions, and resulting timelines and mass manifests, are listed. These findings are combined with state-of-the-art knowledge of lunar and Mars propulsion options in simple economic input/output and internal-rate-of-return models, to compare production costs with performance benefits. Implications for three realistic scales of exploration architecture - expeditionary, aggressive science, and industrialization/settlement - are discussed. Conclusions are reached regarding the contextual conditions within which production of lunar oxygen (LLOX) is a reasonable activity. LLOX appears less useful for Mars missions than previously hoped. Its economical use in low Earth orbit hinges on production of lunar hydrogen as well. LLOX shows promise for lunar ascent/descent use, but that depends strongly on the plant mass required.

Sherwood, Brent↗
NASA NTRS2007

Cost-Efficient Storage of Cryogens

NASA's cryogenic infrastructure that supports launch vehicle operations and propulsion testing is reaching an age where major refurbishment will soon be required. Key elements of this infrastructure are the large double-walled cryogenic storage tanks used for both space vehicle launch operations and rocket propulsion testing at the various NASA field centers. Perlite powder has historically been the insulation material of choice for these large storage tank applications. New bulk-fill insulation materials, including glass bubbles and aerogel beads, have been shown to provide improved thermal and mechanical performance. A research testing program was conducted to investigate the thermal performance benefits as well as to identify operational considerations and associated risks associated with the application of these new materials in large cryogenic storage tanks. The program was divided into three main areas: material testing (thermal conductivity and physical characterization), tank demonstration testing (liquid nitrogen and liquid hydrogen), and system studies (thermal modeling, economic analysis, and insulation changeout). The results of this research work show that more energy-efficient insulation solutions are possible for large-scale cryogenic storage tanks worldwide and summarize the operational requirements that should be considered for these applications.

Fesmire, J. E.↗
NASA NTRS2009

Austere Human Missions to Mars

The Design Reference Architecture 5 (DRA 5) is the most recent concept developed by NASA to send humans to Mars in the 2030 time frame using Constellation Program elements. DRA 5 is optimized to meet a specific set of requirements that would provide for a robust exploration program to deliver a new six-person crew at each biennial Mars opportunity and provide for power and infrastructure to maintain a highly capable continuing human presence on Mars. This paper examines an alternate architecture that is scaled back from DRA 5 and might offer lower development cost, lower flight cost, and lower development risk. It is recognized that a mission set using this approach would not meet all the current Constellation Mars mission requirements; however, this 'austere' architecture may represent a minimum mission set that would be acceptable from a science and exploration standpoint. The austere approach is driven by a philosophy of minimizing high risk or high cost technology development and maximizing development and production commonality in order to achieve a program that could be sustained in a flat-funded budget environment. Key features that would enable a lower technology implementation are as follows: using a blunt-body entry vehicle having no deployable decelerators, utilizing aerobraking rather than aerocapture for placing the crewed element into low Mars orbit, avoiding the use of liquid hydrogen with its low temperature and large volume issues, using standard bipropellant propulsion for the landers and ascent vehicle, and using radioisotope surface power systems rather than a nuclear reactor or large area deployable solar arrays. Flat funding within the expected NASA budget for a sustained program could be facilitated by alternating cargo and crew launches for the biennial Mars opportunities. This would result in two assembled vehicles leaving Earth orbit for Mars per Mars opportunity. The first opportunity would send two cargo landers to the Mars surface to preposition a habitat, supplies, and exploration equipment. The next opportunity, two years later, would send to Mars orbit 1) a lander with a Mars Ascent Vehicle (MAV) and 2) a crewed Mars Transit Habitat with an Orion CEV for Earth return. The following opportunity, two years after the first crew, would go back to cargo-only launches. This alternation of cargo and crew opportunities results in a sustainable launch rate of six Ares V launches every two years. It is notable that four of the six launches per Mars opportunity are identical, build-to-print, Tran-Mars Injection stages. This type of production rate could lend itself well to a COTStype service provider, and would make it feasible to have a live spare in place in the event of a single launch failure.

landers↗
NASA NTRS2010

Potential Lunar In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiments and Mission Scenarios

The extraction and use of resources on the Moon, known as In-Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU), can potentially reduce the cost and risk of human lunar exploration while also increasing science achieved. By not having to bring all of the shielding and mission consumables from Earth and being able to make products on the Moon, missions may require less mass to accomplish the same objectives, carry more science equipment, go to more sites of exploration, and/or provide options to recover from failures not possible with delivery of spares and consumables from Earth alone. The concept of lunar ISRU has been considered and studied for decades, and scientists and engineers were theorizing and even testing concepts for how to extract oxygen from lunar soil even before the Apollo 11 mission to the Moon. There are four main areas where ISRU can significantly impact how human missions to the Moon will be performed: mission consumable production, civil engineering and construction, energy production, storage, and transfer, and manufacturing and repair. The area that has the greatest impact on mission mass, hardware design and selection, and mission architecture is mission consumable production, in particular, the ability to make propellants, life support consumables, and fuel cell reagents. Mission consumable production allows for refueling and reuse of spacecraft, increasing power production and storage, and increased capabilities and failure tolerance for crew life support. The other three areas allow for decreased mission risk due to radiation and plume damage, alternative power systems, and failure recover capabilities while also enabling infrastructure growth over Earth delivered assets. However, while lunar ISRU has significant potential for mass, cost, and risk reduction for human lunar missions, it has never been demonstrated before in space. To demonstrate that ISRU can meet mission needs and to increase confidence in incorporating ISRU capabilities into mission architectures, terrestrial laboratory and analog field testing along with robotic precursor missions are required. A stepwise approach with international collaboration is recommended. The first step is to understand the resources available through orbital and surface exploration missions. Resources of particular interest are hydrogen, hydroxyl, water, and other polar volatile resources recently measured by Chandrayaan, Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO), and the Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS). The second step is to demonstrate critical aspects of ISRU systems to prove ISRU is feasible under lunar environmental and resource conditions (ex. subscale oxygen extraction from regolith). The third step is to perform integrated missions with ISRU and other connected systems, such as power, consumable storage, surface mobility, and life support at a relevant mission scale to demonstrate ISRU capabilities as well as the critical interfaces with other exploration systems. If possible, the mission should demonstrate the use of ISRU products (ex. in a rocket engine or fuel cell). This dress rehearsal mission would be the final step before full implementation of ISRU into human missions, and may be performed during human lunar exploration activities. This stepwise approach is the most conservative approach, and may only be possible with international cooperation due to the limited number of robotic missions each nation/space agency can perform within their budget.

Sanders, Gerald B.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

SIBatt-3D: In-Space/On-Surface 3D Printing of Sodium Ion Batteries from ISRU Materials

Constructed more than 20 years ago, the International Space Station’s primary power system originally used nickel-hydrogen batteries with a lifetime of 6.5 years, until NASA began the process of replacing them in 2016 with lithium-ion batteries with a lifetime of 10 years. The demanding and costly process was accomplished after four flights of the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle cargo spacecraft (with a cost of about $10,000 per pound of payload), and 13 different astronauts conducting 14 spacewalks. Besides utilization in the ISS, rechargeable batteries are present in many space applications: they are installed in exploration robots, life support systems and in portable communication devices, to mention some. In this context, this project is focused on the in-space manufacturing of shape-conformable batteries using in-situ resources, and aims to address the NASA’s gaps related to the development of next generation of energy storage devices (TX03), as well as in-space manufacturing and in-situ resource utilization (TX07). The proposed work also tackles the HEOMD’s objectives targeting the in-space additive manufacturing (AM) from Lunar/Martian materials (regolith as AM feedstock) to reinvigorate America’s Human Space Exploration Program (SPD-1). This project is in direct alignment with the STMD’s objectives to demonstrate in-space autonomous manufacturing and assembly of complete systems by 2030, and to enable humans to live and explore in space and on planetary surfaces by 2040 thanks to in-space habitation, infrastructure development and in-situ resource utilization (ST1 and ST5). Manufacturing of shape conformable batteries directly in-space and using in-situ resources would also contribute to reducing the payload weight and volume (TX12) for future missions, thus reducing risk for long term Mars missions where rapid resupply is logistically infeasible. Nowadays, commercial batteries consist of stacked two-dimensional (2D) sheets, which are only manufactured in restricted geometries (cylindrical and coin cell). Evolving from conventional 2D, complex 3D battery architectures have been proven to increase the electrochemical active surface area and ion diffusion path, leading to improved areal energy density and power performance. This tendency was illustrated in our recent in-depth modeling studies by simulating a classical Ragone plot exhibiting the energy-power relationship. Our team demonstrated through modeling that a complex gyroidal 3D printed battery architecture exhibits significantly improved power performances (>150% at the current density of 6C; full discharge in 10 minutes) in comparison to a traditional 3D printed planar geometry. Motivated by these results and as the fabrication of intricate 3D battery design is only possible experimentally thanks to the geometric freedom offered by additive manufacturing (AM), our team has already initiated leveraging thermoplastic material extrusion at the laboratory scale. While 3D printing of batteries is relatively recent (2013), it has witnessed a growing interest during the last recent years, as next-generation shape-conformable 3D batteries can be co-designed with the system. Consequently, dead-volume and mass brought from Earth are minimized, in addition to improved battery performance, in alignment with the aforementioned NASA’s objectives. Further, while this project is specifically dedicated to batteries, it lends itself towards the maturation of in-space manufacturing via 3D printing using in-situ resources, stated in HEOMD and STMD goals.

In-Space Manufacturing↗