Lunar Assembly and Service by Autonomous Robotics (LASAR): Towards Laser Manufacturing on the Lunar Surface
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Lunar Surface↗
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A Combined Computational, Experimental, and Technology Development Approach to In-Space Laser Manufacturing Maturation at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center
In-space manufacturing (ISM) is emerging as a field vital to continued access and capabilities in the space environment. NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) is advancing the frontier of in-space laser manufacturing (ISLM) techniques through work initially focused on maturing laser beam welding (LBW) and laser forming (LF) for use in space. Such techniques proffer the ability to assemble and join structures in space from sheet metal or other stock – extant satellites, in situ resource utilization of Lunar regolith, etc. – by forming to desired shapes and then joining via in-space welding (ISW). ISLM processes are useful for assembly, joining, modification, and repair of structures in free space and on the Lunar surface such as large observatories, antennas, trusses, blast/thermal/radiation shields, pressure vessels, and more. However, these techniques are not yet qualified & certified (Q&C) for regular application in space. It would be prohibitively expensive, laborious, and time-consuming to perform Q&C via traditional experimental approaches as data collection & experimentation in space is resource-intensive. As such, benchmark experiments and focused, properly instrumented technology demonstration efforts in space can collect sufficient data that – when combined with verified computational models in an integrated computational materials engineering (ICME) approach – can validate ICME tools capable of translating more readily obtained ground data to in-space, in situ, computationally informed Q&C of ISLM techniques. Several ISLM projects at MSFC are obtaining the data required to validate ICME tools through both ground and flight experiments. A parabolic flight experiment of LBW under vacuum is manifested for August 2024, including both microgravity and Lunar gravity profiles. This collaboration with the Ohio State University is investigating common aerospace alloys such as 316L stainless steel, 2219 aluminum alloy, and Ti64 titanium alloy. In situ data collection includes videography, thermography, and reference thermocouples to build a thermal model of the welds. This will elucidate the relevant physics when combined with post-flight microstructural examination and mechanical testing. MSFC is also progressing towards a suborbital flight experiment of LBW under vacuum, which could provide reams of data on ISW during sustained, high-quality reduced gravity. The effect of combined thermal (cryogenic and high-temperature) and vacuum exposure on both LBW (NASA-funded) and LF (DARPA-funded) is being investigated through ground experiments. In addition to the copious data collected during these ground experiments, ruggedization of LBW hardware will also be pursued. The datasets from these experiments will be used to validate computational models which will inform future ISLM efforts in an ICME framework. A variety of techniques across lengths scales, from CALPHAD-driven thermodynamics & kinetics to phase field modeling of solidification to kinetic Monte Carlo simulations of grain evolution at the mesoscale, will be employed to accelerate the infusion and eventual Q&C of LBW and LF for use in space. The development of data-driven surrogate models to bridge ground to flight experiments and thereby reduce the need for resource-intensive experiments in space will also be investigated. These ICME techniques, surrogate models, and datasets from ground testing can also be employed to advance manufacturing in terrestrial environments.
in-space welding↗
Bimetallic Channel Wall Nozzle Development and Hot-Fire Testing Using Additively Manufactured Laser Wire Direct Closeout Technology
NASA has been developing and advancing regeneratively-cooled channel wall nozzle technology for liquid rocket engines to reduce cost and schedules associated with fabrication. One of the primary methods being advanced is Laser Wire Direct Closeout (LWDC). LWDC was developed to provide an additively manufactured laser deposited closeout of the coolant channels that also forms the structural jacket in-situ. This technique has been previously demonstrated through process development and hot-fire testing on a series of subscale nozzles at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center. The hot-fire test articles were fabricated using monolithic alloys to simplify the fabrication process. Ongoing research is being conducted to further expand use of this process for increased scale and bimetallic or multi-alloy options. The use of multi-alloys is desired to fully optimize the combination of materials in the radial and axial directions to reduce overall weight of the nozzle and allow for higher thermal and structural margins on the channel wall nozzle. NASA recently completed process development and hot-fire testing of a series of channel wall nozzles that incorporate a copper-alloy as the hotwall liner material and a superalloy and combination thereof for the structural jacket using the LWDC technique. The fabrication process was further advanced by using a multi-alloy axial joint using explosive bonding integrating a copper-alloy at the forward end of the nozzle hotwall and a stainless-alloy for the remaining length. A third alloy was then used for the channel closeout using the LWDC process. This paper will describe the process development using the LWDC process for channel closeout utilizing the multi-alloys, hardware design and results from hot-fire testing on subscale multi-alloy LWDC channel cooled nozzles.
Gradl, Paul↗
Al6061-RAM2 Development and Hot-Fire Testing using Additive Manufacturing Laser Powder Directed Energy Deposition for Liquid Rocket Engine Channel-Cooled Nozzles
Aluminum 6061-RAM2 is a high-strength aluminum feedstock developed for additive manufacturing (AM)processes. This alloy leverages Reactive Additive Manufacturing (RAM) technology. The RAM aluminum alloys were developed to be weldable—therefore printable—while equaling or exceeding strength properties of high strength wrought aluminum alloys. NASA and industry partners developed Laser Powder Directed Energy Deposition (LP-DED)additive manufacturing of Al6061-RAM2 for use in aerospace applications. Efforts included establishing build parameters, characterizing the alloy, fabricating components, and completing hot-fire testing of complex internal channel-cooled nozzles. These efforts are to address the growing need for large-scale parts using high-performance light-weight materials. Two rocket engine nozzles were fabricated using LP-DED Al6061-RAM2 that included integral cooling channels. The Al6061-RAM2 has completed process development and initial properties were established. This paper provides an overview of the LP-DED process development, material characterization and properties, component manufacturing, supplemental development, and hot-fire testing. Results from hot-fire testing are provided for a lander-class 31kN (7,000lbf)thrust engine using Liquid Oxygen (LOX)/Liquid Hydrogen(LH2) and LOX/Methane(LCH4).
Al6061-RAM2↗
Al6061-RAM2 Development and Hot-Fire Testing using Additive Manufacturing Laser Powder Directed Energy Deposition for Liquid Rocket Engine Channel-Cooled Nozzles
Aluminum 6061-RAM2 is a high-strength aluminum feedstock developed for additive manufacturing (AM)processes. This alloy leverages Reactive Additive Manufacturing (RAM) technology. The RAM aluminum alloys were developed to be weldable—therefore printable—while equaling or exceeding strength properties of high strength wrought aluminum alloys. NASA and industry partners developed Laser Powder Directed Energy Deposition (LP-DED)additive manufacturing of Al6061-RAM2 for use in aerospace applications. Efforts included establishing build parameters, characterizing the alloy, fabricating components, and completing hot-fire testing of complex internal channel-cooled nozzles. These efforts are to address the growing need for large-scale parts using high-performance light-weight materials. Two rocket engine nozzles were fabricated using LP-DED Al6061-RAM2 that included integral cooling channels. The Al6061-RAM2 has completed process development and initial properties were established. This paper provides an overview of the LP-DED process development, material characterization and properties, component manufacturing, supplemental development, and hot-fire testing. Results from hot-fire testing are provided for a lander-class 31kN (7,000lbf)thrust engine using Liquid Oxygen (LOX)/Liquid Hydrogen(LH2) and LOX/Methane(LCH4).
Al6061-RAM2↗
Al6061-RAM2 Development and Hot-Fire Testing using Additive Manufacturing Laser Powder Directed Energy Deposition for Liquid Rocket Engine Channel-Cooled Nozzles
Aluminum 6061-RAM2 is a high-strength aluminum feedstock developed for additive manufacturing (AM)processes. This alloy leverages Reactive Additive Manufacturing (RAM) technology. The RAM aluminum alloys were developed to be weldable—therefore printable—while equaling or exceeding strength properties of high strength wrought aluminum alloys. NASA and industry partners developed Laser Powder Directed Energy Deposition (LP-DED)additive manufacturing of Al6061-RAM2 for use in aerospace applications. Efforts included establishing build parameters, characterizing the alloy, fabricating components, and completing hot-fire testing of complex internal channel-cooled nozzles. These efforts are to address the growing need for large-scale parts using high-performance light-weight materials. Two rocket engine nozzles were fabricated using LP-DED Al6061-RAM2 that included integral cooling channels. The Al6061-RAM2 has completed process development and initial properties were established. This paper provides an overview of the LP-DED process development, material characterization and properties, component manufacturing, supplemental development, and hot-fire testing. Results from hot-fire testing are provided for a lander-class 31kN (7,000lbf) thrust engine using Liquid Oxygen (LOX)/Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) and LOX/Methane (LCH4).
Al6061-RAM2↗
Convolutional Neural Networks for Image Classification in Metal Selective Laser Meting Additive Manufacturing
Selective laser melting (SLM) is a metal additive manufacturing process that has several advantages such as the large range of metal materials that can be accommodated, 3D printing of complex shape components, the ability to adjust material properties, and cost reduction as expensive production equipment may not be required. Therefore, process monitoring is crucial in different stages of the component building. In this work, convolutional neural networks (CNNs) are investigated as a suitable technique for post-inspection of builds. The monitoring of manufactured parts was conducted by collecting computed tomography (CT) images and identifying defects. Five CNN models were implemented and tested for the classification of the CT images. The models were based on NASNetMobile and DenseNet121, and a custom built CNN model. The results of this work show that CNNs can be feasible and reliable for rapid monitoring and classification of defects in CT images from build fabrication using SLM.
Rodolfo Ledesma↗
Additive Manufacturing Thermal Performance Testing of Single Channel GRCop-84 SLM Components
The surface finish found on components manufactured by sinter laser manufacturing (SLM) is rougher (0.013 - 0.0006 inches) than parts made using traditional fabrication methods. Internal features and passages built into SLM components do not readily allow for roughness reduction processes. Alternatively, engineering literature suggests that the roughness of a surface can enhance thermal performance within a pressure drop regime. To further investigate the thermal performance of SLM fabricated pieces, several GRCop-84 SLM single channel components were tested using a thermal conduction rig at MSFC. A 20 kW power source running at 25% duty cycle and 25% power level applied heat to each component while varying water flow rates between 2.1 - 6.2 gallons/min (GPM) at a supply pressure of 550 to 700 psi. Each test was allowed to reach quasi-steady state conditions where pressure, temperature, and thermal imaging data were recorded. Presented in this work are the heat transfer responses compared to a traditional machined OHFC Copper test section. An analytical thermal model was constructed to anchor theoretical models with the empirical data.
Garcia, Chance P.↗
Thermal Performance Testing of Single Channel GRCop-84 SLM Components
The surface finish found on components manufactured by sinter laser manufacturing (SLM) is rougher (0.013 - 0.0006 inches) than parts made using traditional fabrication methods. Internal features and passages built into SLM components do not readily allow for roughness reduction processes. Alternatively, engineering literature suggests that the roughness of a surface can enhance thermal performance within a pressure drop regime. To further investigate the thermal performance of SLM fabricated pieces, several GRCop‐84 SLM single channel components were tested using a thermal conduction rig at MSFC. A 20 kW power source running at 25% duty cycle and 25% power level applied heat to each component while varying water flow rates between 2.1 - 6.2 gallons/min (GPM) at a supply pressure of 500 to 750 psi. Each test was allowed to reach quasi‐steady state conditions where pressure, temperature, and thermal imaging data were recorded. Presented in this work are the heat transfer responses compared to a traditional machined OHFC Copper test section. An analytical thermal model was constructed to anchor theoretical models with the empirical data.
Garcia, Chance P.↗
Vacuum Laser Additive Manufacturing of Lunar and Martian Regolith
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IN-situ resource untilization↗
Heat Treatment Optimization of Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacture C103
Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) and Laser Powder Directed Energy Deposition (LP-DED) additive manufacture C103 is in development for propulsion applications that operate under extreme environments. The standard post-process heat treatment has called for vacuum stress relief, however, depending on the application or certification requirements hot isostatic press (HIP) may be required. Although C103 density responds well to HIP the associated grain growth results in a reduction in mechanical properties. An investigation was conducted to look at the potential benefit of leveraging HIP followed by rapid cooling to minimize grain growth. A series of heat treatment schedules varying temperature and pressure were conducted followed by microstructural and mechanical characterization.
Additive Manufacturing↗
Progress on Space Borne Laser Risk Reduction at Goddard Space Flight Center
At the direction of NASA Headquarters NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC) undertook in 2002 a program in fundamental research on laser manufacturing technologies aimed at improving the performance and lifetime of lasers sent into space for remote sensing applications. The work at GSFC has concentrated on three areas: 1) development of high power 1 micron lasers, 2) lifetime and reliability testing for 808 nm pump diodes, and 3) efficient conversion of 1 micron radiation to wavelengths needed for various remote sensing tasks. After almost 2 years of development interesting results in all three areas are beginning to emerge. Some of these results will be described along with discussion of future directions.
Heaps, William S.↗
Thermocouple Temperature Measurements in Selective Laser Melting Additive Manufacturing
The extreme thermal history resulting from selective laser melting leads to microstructural characteristics and residual stresses that have considerable impact on the mechanical behavior of the printed part. Accurate measurements of the temperature combined with thermal models are needed to better understand and control the thermal history to optimize mechanical properties. In order to calibrate and validate models, experimental temperature data must be accurately measured in a rapid fashion due to the high speeds of the laser. In this work, a novel method to read data from thermocouples is created with enhanced circuitry that achieves a sampling rate of 10 kHz. This data acquisition rate allows for high precision sampling of SLM heating and cooling cycles.
additive manufacturing↗
Metal Coatings
During the Apollo Program, General Magnaplate Corporation developed process techniques for bonding dry lubricant coatings to space metals. The coatings were not susceptible to outgassing and offered enhanced surface hardness and superior resistance to corrosion and wear. This development was necessary because conventional lubrication processes were inadequate for lightweight materials used in Apollo components. General Magnaplate built on the original technology and became a leader in development of high performance metallurgical surface enhancement coatings - "synergistic" coatings, - which are used in applications from pizza making to laser manufacture. Each of the coatings is designed to protect a specific metal or group of metals to solve problems encountered under operating conditions.
Source record↗
Manufacturing Process Developments for Regeneratively-Cooled Channel Wall Rocket Nozzles
Regeneratively cooled channel wall nozzles incorporate a series of integral coolant channels to contain the coolant to maintain adequate wall temperatures and expand hot gas providing engine thrust and specific impulse. NASA has been evaluating manufacturing techniques targeting large scale channel wall nozzles to support affordability of current and future liquid rocket engine nozzles and thrust chamber assemblies. The development of these large scale manufacturing techniques focus on the liner formation, channel slotting with advanced abrasive water-jet milling techniques and closeout of the coolant channels to replace or augment other cost reduction techniques being evaluated for nozzles. NASA is developing a series of channel closeout techniques including large scale additive manufacturing laser deposition and explosively bonded closeouts. A series of subscale nozzles were completed evaluating these processes. Fabrication of mechanical test and metallography samples, in addition to subscale hardware has focused on Inconel 625, 300 series stainless, aluminum alloys as well as other candidate materials. Evaluations of these techniques are demonstrating potential for significant cost reductions for large scale nozzles and chambers. Hot fire testing is planned using these techniques in the future.
Gradl, Paul↗
Graphical User Interfaces for Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing
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Additive Manufacturing, Laser Powder Bed Fusion, G↗
Graphical User Interfaces for Laser Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing
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Additive Manufacturing↗