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All sources NASA NTRS DOE OSTI

DOE OSTI2024

Plant-specific microbial diversity facilitates functional redundancy at the soil-root interface

Abstract Aims Plant-specific microbial diversity reflecting host-microbe coevolution was frequently shown at the structural level but less on the functional scale. We studied the microbiome of three compartments at the soil root interface (root endosphere, rhizosphere, bulk soil) of medicinal plants cultivated under organic management in Egypt. The study aimed to examine the impact of the rhizosphere on microbial community composition and diversity in desert agricultural soil, as well as to identify specific functions associated with the rhizosphere. Methods The microbiome community structure, diversity, and microbial functioning were evaluated through the utilization of 16S rRNA gene amplicon and shotgun metagenome sequencing. Results We found the typical rhizosphere effect and plant-species-specific enrichment of bacterial diversity. The annual plants Calendula officinalis and Matricaria chamomilla ( Asteraceae ) were more similar than the perennial Solanum distichum ( Solanaceae ). Altogether, plant species explained 50.5% of the variation in bacterial community structures in the rhizosphere. Our results indicate a stronger effect of the plant species in terms of modulating bacterial community structures in the rhizosphere than in root endosphere samples. The plant-driven rhizosphere effect could be linked to redundant plant beneficial functions in the microbiome, while enrichment of specific genes related to amino acid ion transport and metabolism, carbohydrate transport and metabolism, defense mechanisms, and secondary metabolites biosynthesis were more specific. Conclusions The study explores the microbiome continuum at the soil-root interface of medicinal plant species, revealing significant bacterial community structure shifts and plant specificity. The study provides insights into the essential microbiome components contributing to rhizosphere functionality.

Wicaksono, Wisnu Adi (ORCID:0000000215561981)↗

DOE OSTI2026

From microbial diversity to functional potential using dimensionality reduction

The high dimensionality of microbial diversity data from ‘omics observations can be reduced using Machine Learning, with many recent studies showcasing ML utility for exploratory ecological feature finding and process prediction. Here, we compare the Self Organizing Map (SOM) dimensionality reduction method to the well-documented sample-based Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) and taxa-based Weighted Gene Correlation Network Analysis (WGCNA) using near daily 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing data from the 2019 to 2020 MOSAiC International Arctic Drift Expedition. We then map k-means clustering outputs from each method to available metagenomes, extracting functionally distinct seasonal microbial ecotypes in the surface Arctic Ocean. Our results indicate the SOM method better represented expected seasonal transitions and identified a greater number of metabolically distinct functional groups than the more traditional PCoA ordination. Ultimately, we identified four community ecotypes with distinct taxonomic and functional cut-offs driven by seasonality, water mass, and substrate turnover, highlighting the importance of succession in functional diversity for the central Arctic Ocean. These results reinforce ML dimensionality reduction as a meaningful translator in the mining of historical amplicon datasets to address modern mechanistic questions and potentially provide ’omics informed ecotype diversity to leverage in mechanistic biogeochemical models.

Arctic Ocean↗

DOE OSTI2025

Gestational exposure to HIV drugs alters intestinal mucosa-associated microbial diversity in adult rat offspring

The antiretroviral (ARV) drug combination of abacavir sulfate, dolutegravir, and lamivudine [ABC/DTG/3TC; Tri combination Anti-retroviral therapy (TC-ART)] has revolutionized HIV treatment by effectively targeting different stages of viral replication. Despite its therapeutic efficiency for maintaining low viremia in the mother during pregnancy, there are concerns for long-term liabilities in offspring that are indirectly exposed during vulnerable periods of development. The commensal microbiota plays a crucial role in maintaining overall gut health, and disruption of the microbiome is often linked to various extraintestinal effects such as immune dysregulation and inflammation. We recently reported the effects of this drug combination in altering fecal microbiome composition of aged rats perinatally exposed to ABC/DTG/3TC-ART. The fecal microbiome can provide only a snapshot of the composition of microbial community at the end of the digestive tract, which may not reflect the microbial population interacting with ileal mucosa. Thus, the current work reports the effects of this drug combination in the gut mucosa-associated microbiome of the same animals, which showed significant microbial diversity and species richness in high dose exposed female adult offspring, along with dose-dependent changes in Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio. The high dose exposure also showed an increase in opportunistic bacterial species in male animals. Overall, we found that, similar to the fecal microbiome, perinatal exposure to TC-ART led to sex- and dose-dependent alterations in the gut mucosa-associated microbial population in aged rats, suggesting that early life exposure to these drugs may influence gut mucosa-associated immune responses and intestinal permeability.

Research & Experimental Medicine↗

DOE OSTI2024

Alkaloids are associated with increased microbial diversity and metabolic function in poison frogs

Shifts in host-associated microbiomes can impact both host and microbes. It is of interest to understand how perturbations, like the introduction of exogenous chemicals, impact microbiomes. In poison frogs (family Dendrobatidae), the skin microbiome is exposed to alkaloids that the frogs sequester for defense. These alkaloids are antimicrobial; however, their effect on the frogs’ skin microbiome is unknown. To test this, we characterized microbial communities from field-collected dendrobatid frogs. Then, we conducted a laboratory experiment to monitor the effect of the alkaloid decahydroquinoline (DHQ) on the microbiome of two frog species with contrasting alkaloid loads in nature. In both datasets, we found that alkaloid-exposed microbiomes were more phylogenetically diverse, with an increase in diversity among rare taxa. Further, to better understand the isolate-specific response to alkaloids, we cultured microbial isolates from poison frog skin and found that many isolates exhibited enhanced growth or were not impacted by the addition of DHQ. To further explore the microbial response to alkaloids, we sequenced the metagenomes from high- and low-alkaloid frogs and observed a greater diversity of genes associated with nitrogen and carbon metabolism in high-alkaloid frogs. From these data, we hypothesized that some strains may metabolize the alkaloids. We used stable isotope tracing coupled to nanoSIMS (nanoscale secondary ion mass spectrometry), which supported the idea that some of these isolates are able to metabolize DHQ. Together, these data suggest that poison frog alkaloids open new niches for skin-associated microbes with specific adaptations, such as alkaloid metabolism, that enable survival in this environment.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2026

Mobile genetic elements shape microbial diversity and functions in thawing permafrost soils

Ecosystems are shaped by communities of microorganisms whose niches and impacts depend on functional profiles influenced by gene gains and losses. Culture-based experiments demonstrate that mobile genetic elements (MGEs) can mediate gene flux, but quantitative understanding of these dynamics in natural systems remains limited. Here we develop and apply a systematic, meta-omic framework to investigate MGEs in a complex natural system using an 8-year soil time series collected at Stordalen Mire, in Sweden’s thawing permafrost margin. In this climate-critical peatland, we identify ~2.1 million MGE recombinases across 89 microbial phyla and assess ecological distributions, affected functions, past mobility and current activity. This revealed an active mobilome that shapes natural genetic diversity via differential impacts on major phyla and affects a wide range of functions, including metabolic genes involved in carbon flux and nutrient cycling. These findings and this analytic framework suggest avenues towards a better understanding of MGE diversity, activity, mobility and impacts across ecosystems.

Biological and medical sciences↗

DOE OSTI2026

Demonstrating a butylamine-based deconstruction method for poplar biomass and conversion by diverse microbial strains

Low-boiling alkylamines such as butylamine offer promise as effective biomass pretreatment solvents that can be readily recovered and recycled; however, their capability to support microbial conversion of nutrients present in hydrolysates represents an important area for investigation. Here we employed butylamine to pretreat poplar biomass and characterize its effects on the release of fermentable sugars after solvent removal and enzymatic hydrolysis, as well as the biocompatibility of the produced hydrolysates with three organisms commonly used as bioconversion hosts. We observed that residual butylamine and the derivative butylacetamide were present in high enough concentrations to exert toxicity to strains of Aspergillus niger, Pseudomonas putida, and Rhodosporidium toruloides that produce malic acid, isoprenol and bisabolene, respectively. Removal of the toxic compounds by charcoal filtration and nutrient supplementation resulted in a hydrolysate containing >100 g L −1 of sugars that enabled strong growth, substrate consumption and bioproduct accumulation, outperforming defined cultivation media. This is the first demonstration of a butylamine-based deconstruction process for poplar biomass at a pilot-scale to achieve conversion of high sugar concentrations to valuable bioproducts with engineered microbes.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2026

Genome-resolved insights into microbial diversity and elemental cycling in Winogradsky columns

We retained 18 MAGs with ≥50% completion and <10% contamination (i.e., at least medium quality). Of these, 10 had >90% completion and <5% contamination; however, only one (Paceibacteria Bin.003_MG) can be described as high-quality, as the others lacked a full suite of 5S, 16S, and 23S rRNA genes. To maximize the diversity of our recovered MAGs, we also retained one MAG (Chromatiaceae Bin.008_AM) with >40% (but less than 50%) completion and <5% contamination, as well as one (Rhodopseudomonas Bin.015_MK) with >90% completion and <20% (but>10%) contamination. Interestingly, significant chimerism was not detected in this MAG (40) , suggesting that the elevated contamination (20%) may instead reflect two closely related strains collapsing into a single bin. Consistent with this, contig coverage was bimodal, with roughly 17% of the assembly at ~115x and the remaining 83% at ~282x, while GC content remained uniform across both groups (~64%), arguing against contamination from a taxonomically distinct source.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Diversity and Distribution of Hydrocarbon-Degrading Genes in the Cold Seeps from the Mediterranean and Caspian Seas

Marine cold seeps are unique ecological niches characterized by the emergence of hydrocarbons, including methane, which fosters diverse microbial communities. This study investigates the diversity and distribution of hydrocarbon-degrading genes and organisms in sediments from the Caspian and Mediterranean Seas, utilizing 16S rRNA and metagenomic sequencing to elucidate microbial community structure and functional potential. Our findings reveal distinct differences in hydrocarbon degrading gene profiles between the two seas, with pathways for aerobic and anaerobic hydrocarbon degradation co-existing in sediments from both basins. Aerobic pathways predominate in the surface sediments of the Mediterranean Sea, while anaerobic pathways are favored in the surface sediments of the anoxic Caspian Sea. Additionally, sediment depths significantly influence microbial diversity, with variations in gene abundance and community composition observed at different depths. Aerobic hydrocarbon-degrading genes decrease in diversity with depth in the Mediterranean Sea, whereas the diversity of aerobic hydrocarbon-degrading genes increases with depth in the Caspian Sea. These results enhance our understanding of microbial ecology in cold seep environments and have implications for bioremediation practices targeting hydrocarbon pollutants in marine ecosystems.

Microbiology↗

DOE OSTI2025

Expanded Diversity of Microbial Groups Capable of Anaerobic Pyrite Reduction and Assimilation of Dissolution Products

Pyrite, the most abundant iron sulfide mineral in the Earth's crust, has traditionally been considered as a sink for iron and sulfur in the absence of oxygen. Recent research, however, has shown that anaerobic methanogenic archaea can reductively dissolve pyrite and assimilate its products as sources of iron and sulfur. This study explores whether other anaerobic bacteria, including fermentative, nitrate-, iron oxide-, fumarate-, and sulfate-respiring bacteria, can also reduce pyrite and use its dissolution products as sources of iron and sulfur. Results indicate that heterotrophic bacteria respiring fumarate or sulfate, or fermenting organic carbon, can reduce pyrite and assimilate released iron and sulfur. In contrast, nitrate- or iron oxide-respiring cells did not reduce pyrite, suggesting that microbial pyrite reduction is metabolism-specific. All strains capable of reducing pyrite could also use mackinawite as an iron and sulfur source. With the exception of fermentative Bacteroides, strains did not require direct contact with pyrite to reduce the mineral, indicating extracellular electron transfer via electron shuttles. These findings expand the known diversity of microbial groups capable of pyrite reduction and highlight the mineral's lability in various anaerobic environments, with potential implications for the biogeochemical cycles of iron, sulfur, carbon, and oxygen.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Limited effects of tannin supplementation on the dairy cattle fecal microbiome with modulation of metabolites

Tannins are plant secondary metabolites that bind organic carbon (C) and nitrogen (N), potentially altering substrate bioavailability for enteric fermentation in ruminants. This interaction may reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and influence nitrogen partitioning. Given tannins' resistance to ruminal degradation and persistence through the gastrointestinal tract, this study investigated the effects of a tannin-based feed additive on fecal microbial diversity, fecal chemical composition, and GHG emissions. Twenty-four early- to mid-lactation dairy cows were randomized to receive either a tannin-based feed additive (TRT; containing condensed and hydrolyzable tannins from Schinopsis quebracho-colorado [Schltdl.]) or a control diet (CON) for 64 days. Cows were blocked by parity, dry matter intake, milk yield, body weight, and days in milk. Fecal samples were collected on days 0, 16, 32, and 64 and analyzed using 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Fecal C, N, and indole-3-lactate were measured, and GHG emissions (N2O, CH4, CO2) were assessed via 14-day laboratory incubation. A total of 1,538 amplicon sequence variants were identified, with Firmicutes as the dominant phylum. Fecal phylogenetic diversity showed a significant treatment × day interaction (p < 0.01), with TRT cows exhibiting reduced microbial diversity from day 16 to 64. Fecal C and N concentrations were significantly lower (p < 0.01) in TRT cows on day 16, while indole-3-lactate levels were higher on day 64 (p = 0.02). GHG emissions did not differ significantly between treatments. The tannin-based feed additive influenced fecal microbial community structure and select chemical parameters but did not significantly affect GHG emissions from feces. These findings suggest that dietary tannins may modulate gut microbial ecology with minimal impact on downstream manure-related emissions.

Klein, Matthew L↗

DOE OSTI2025

Identifying microbial functional guilds performing cryptic organotrophic and lithotrophic redox cycles in anaerobic granular biofilms

Granular biofilms used in anaerobic digester systems contain diverse microbial populations that interact to hydrolyze organic matter and produce methane within controlled environments. Prior research investigated the feasibility of utilizing granular biofilms obtained from an anaerobic digester to remove nitrate without the addition of exogenous electron donors. These granules possessed a unique structure of alternating light and dark iron sulfide and pyrite rich layers that potentially served as both an electron source and sink, linking carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and iron cycles. To characterize the functional roles of diverse microbial populations enriched within these layered biofilms, we analyzed metagenomes obtained from three different granules. Comparisons between the functional gene content of forty metagenome assembled genomes (MAGs) identified phylogenetically cohesive functional guilds. Each of these functional MAG clusters was assigned to specific steps in anaerobic digestion (hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis) and anaerobic respiration (denitrification and sulfate reduction). Comparisons with metagenomes derived from a variety of natural and engineered ecosystems confirmed that the enriched denitrifying bacteria were similar to populations typically found in wetlands and biological nitrogen removal systems. Analysis of read alignments to individual genes within the forty MAGs identified conserved genomic features that were representative of the functions that distinguished functional guilds. Overall, this research illustrates the utility of functional based classification of microorganisms for characterizing ecosystem functions and highlights the potential application of engineered ecosystems to serve as experimental models for complex natural ecosystems.

Ecosystem engineering↗

DOE OSTI2025

Rhizosphere Microbiome Diversity Potentially Supports Robust Nature of Field Pennycress ( Thlaspi arvense L.) in Dryland Cropping Systems of Eastern Washington

ABSTRACT Field pennycress ( Thlaspi arvense L.) is an annual in the Brassicaceae family and is currently being developed as an oilseed intermediate crop suitable for renewable biodiesel and jet fuel. It displays many desirable characteristics for this role including cold tolerance, a rapid life cycle, and a seed fatty acid profile conducive to bioenergy generation. These traits make field pennycress favorable for winter oilseed cultivation in the inland Pacific Northwest (iPNW). Simultaneously, intermediate crops are an increasingly recognized component of both agronomic sustainability and soil health management. Intermediate crops enhance soil microbial diversity, which benefits both soil and plant health. To understand the impact of field pennycress on soil microbial diversity, two natural accessions and seven experimental accessions were grown at three sites in Eastern Washington. Aboveground biomass and rhizosphere soil were then collected. Soil genomic DNA was extracted from rhizosphere samples and used to generate an amplicon library for bacterial (16S) and fungal (ITS) rRNA sequences. The resulting libraries were analyzed in QIIME2, which revealed that not only did the fad2 deficient line from the Spring32‐10 background have significantly increased aboveground biomass production compared to other pennycress genotypes, but also displayed significantly higher β‐diversity in the rhizosphere community specifically at the site experiencing the driest conditions. ANCOM analysis showed that multiple sequences similar to beneficial plant and soil health enhancing organisms such as Trichoderma spirale , Pseudomonas spp., and Methylobacterium goesingense were found to be enriched in the microbiome of the fad2 Spring32‐10 background also at that site. To add additional context to rhizosphere community data, root exudates from two pennycress genotypes were captured in magenta boxes and analyzed using HPLC. Future work will expand our understanding of the mechanisms by which field pennycress creates diversity in the rhizosphere, thus expanding our ability to cultivate this crop in the iPNW.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Microbial Enrichments Contribute to Characterization Of Desert Tortoise Gut Microbiota

Abstract Desert tortoises play ecologically significant roles, including plant seed dispersal and mineral cycling, and yet little is known about microbial members that are critical to their gut and overall health. Tortoises consume recalcitrant plant material, which their gut microbiota degrades and converts into usable metabolites and nutrients for the tortoise. Findings from tortoise gut microbiomes may translate well into biotechnological applications as these microbes have evolved to efficiently degrade recalcitrant substrates and generate useful products. In this study, we cultivated microbial communities from desert tortoise fecal samples following a targeted anaerobic enrichment for microbes involved in deconstruction and utilization of plant biomass. We employed 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing to compare cultivated communities to initial fecal source material and found high abundances of Firmicutes and Bacteroidota typically associated with biomass deconstruction in all cultivated samples. Significantly decreased microbial diversity was observed in the cultivated microbial communities, yet several key taxa thrived in lignocellulose enrichments, includingLachnospiraceaeandEnterococcus. Additionally, cultivated communities produced short-chain fatty acids under anaerobic conditions, and their growth and metabolic output provide evidence of their viability in the initial fecal communities. Overall, this study adds to the limited understanding of reptilian herbivore microbiota, and offers a path towards biotechnological translation based on the ability of the cultivated communities to convert lignocellulose directly to acetate, propionate, and butyrate.

Environmental Sciences & Ecology↗

DOE OSTI2025

A genomic view of Earth’s biomes

Microorganisms are essential to all life on Earth through critical roles in key biological processes and diverse interactions with other organisms that shape ecosystems, drive biogeochemical cycles and influence both human health and environmental health. High-throughput sequencing from environmental samples has revolutionized the understanding of microbial diversity and functions. With vast amounts of genomes now available across Earth’s biomes, these data provide a blueprint of microbial life that can be harnessed for a more holistic understanding of microbiome structure and function across the various ecosystems on Earth. Here we review the application of genome-centric approaches, including recent advances in single-cell sequencing and functional profiling, to survey microbial and viral diversity. Furthermore, we highlight some of the most impactful evolutionary and functional discoveries, explore the spatial diversity and temporal dynamics of microorganisms across diverse environments, and discuss genome-enabled insights into host-associated microorganisms.

Ecology↗

DOE OSTI2025

Root and Leaf Traits of Alfalfa Exhibit Distinct Responses to Soil Microbial Communities and Environmental Stresses

Ongoing climate change is negatively impacting crop productivity globally. Past research has highlighted that a diverse soil microbial community and variation in plant traits for resource acquisition can mitigate the negative impacts of climate change factors on crop productivity. This study investigates the effects of two major environmental stressors—drought and salinity stress, on plant productivity, biomass allocation, and root and leaf trait responses under distinct soil microbial diversities. Our results showed that salinity stress had stronger negative impacts on plant productivity than drought stress. Shoot biomass decreased by 30% and 32.5% under drought and salinity stress, respectively, whereas the root biomass decreased by 32% only under salinity stress. Soil microbial diversity did not affect plant productivity. Next, root traits were mainly impacted by drought and salinity stress, whereas leaf traits were impacted by both environmental stresses and soil microbial diversity. Specific root length and specific root area decreased under drought, and root tissue density was minimal under salinity stress. Root traits were not affected by soil microbial communities. In contrast, the leaf nitrogen content increased, whereas pheophytin content (a breakdown product of chlorophyll) decreased when plants were grown in diverse microbial communities under environmental stresses, especially drought. These results highlight the importance of soil microbial diversity in impacting plant traits in response to environmental stresses. We showed that the soil microbial diversity influences both aboveground and belowground plant traits, indicating the need for better management practices to conserve and promote soil microbial diversity.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Potential Challenges of HyBlend Storage in a Methane Reservoir Located in Southwestern United States

Hydrogen has been identified as a flexible energy carrier with zero or negative emissions across multiple energy systems. It is possible to utilize hydrogen by storing Hyblend, or hydrogen gas blended with methane, in existing natural gas infrastructure. However, the compatibility of adapting the current CH4 storage strategies to include H2 injection has not been fully demonstrated. It is essential that we understand the impact of H2 gas on the naturally occurring microbial community of subsurface storage reservoirs before deploying large-scale H2-CH4 storage. We designed a series of experiments that allowed us to identify potential geochemical and microbial challenges of HyBlend Storage in existing methane reservoirs. First, we collected and characterized field fluid samples from a methane reservoir located in southwestern United States. Next, we used these field fluid samples to complete a series of short-term reactor experiments at reservoir conditions (80 °C and ~1,000 psi) for a natural gas (100% CH4) and HyBlend(80% CH4/20% H2) storage environment to measure the transformation of gas content. We conducted both biotic and abiotic (sterilized) measurements to accurately understand and decouple abiotic and microbially driven processes. Overall, we found that our field sample was characterized by a diverse microbial community with the metabolic capacity for sulfur reduction, iron reduction, and acetogenesis. Across our reactors, there was minimal change in geochemistry.

hydrogen storage↗

DOE OSTI2026

Enabling depth resolved temporal resolved soil microbial sampling with novel vadose zone diffusion sampler

To address the difficulty in Earth system science in making time-course measurements of molecular signatures in soil biochemistry, we developed a soil stake system to sample and replace a defined soil analog medium, connected through hydraulic connectivity via perforated casings and modular inserts. We deployed these stakes to a site in Prosser, WA and measured microbial colonization of sterile sand-clay inserts enriched with N-acetyl-glucosamine at different depths over spring and summer. DNA and RNA analyses revealed distinct microbial recruitment and activity patterns. Inserts showed lower microbial diversity but higher abundance of Proteobacteriota and Bacteriota compared to native soils, alongside seasonal shifts in taxonomic and functional profiles. The soil stake system offers a novel approach for studying microbial dynamics across temporal and spatial scales.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2025

Harnessing the Power of Machine Learning and Omics to Identify Environmental Regulation on Microbial Functional Composition for Soil C, N, and P Cycling

Microbial enzyme-mediated soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition regulates many key ecosystem functions, such as elemental cycling, soil carbon sequestration, and soil fertility. However, representing microbial processes in Earth system models (ESMs) remains challenging due to a limited understanding of the spatial patterns of diverse microbial functions responsible for soil carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) cycling as well as the underlying mechanisms regulating their relative abundances across various environments. We collected published metagenomics data across the continental US (CONUS) to identify hundreds of microbial genes involved in soil C, N, and P cycling and grouped them into eight enzyme functional classes (EFCs). Each EFC represented a group of gene-encoded potential enzymes that decompose similar soil compounds. By integrating the abundances of omics-informed EFCs with the corresponding environmental information, we trained a machine learning (ML) model to identify key edaphic, climate, and vegetation factors regulating the abundances of each EFC. Quantitative analysis of effects of these factors revealed that the spatial distribution of eight EFCs for soil C, N, and P cycling across CONUS reflected potential resource optimization strategies of microbial communities under nutrient limitation, preferential organic-mineral associations, and climatological stresses. This insight, together with the interpreted ML tool and the CONUS-level benchmark for EFCs abundances, paves the way for parameterizing environmental-regulated microbial functional dynamics in biogeochemical models.

machine learning↗