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DOE OSTI2020

Model Year 2019 Fuel Economy Guide: EPA Fuel Economy Estimates

The Fuel Economy Guide is published by the U.S. Department of Energy as an aid to consumers considering the purchase of a new vehicle. The Guide lists estimates of miles per gallon (mpg) for each vehicle available for the new model year. These estimates are provided by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in compliance with Federal Law. By using this Guide, consumers can estimate the average yearly fuel cost for any vehicle. The Guide is intended to help consumers compare the fuel economy of similarly sized cars, light duty trucks and special purpose vehicles.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗

DOE OSTI2020

Model Year 2020 Fuel Economy Guide: EPA Fuel Economy Estimates

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗

DOE OSTI2022

Model Year 2021 Fuel Economy Guide

2017 EPA fuel economy↗

DOE OSTI2021

Electric Drive Technology Trends, Challenges, and Opportunities for Future Electric Vehicles

The transition to electric road transport technologies requires electric traction drive systems to offer improved performances and capabilities, such as fuel efficiency (in terms of MPGe, i.e., miles per gallon of gasoline-equivalent), extended range, and fast-charging options. The enhanced electrification and transformed mobility are translating to a demand for higher power and more efficient electric traction drive systems that lead to better fuel economy for a given battery charge. To accelerate the mass-market adoption of electrified transportation, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), in collaboration with the automotive industry, has announced the technical targets for light-duty electric vehicles (EVs) for 2025. This article discusses the electric drive technology trends for passenger electric and hybrid EVs with commercially available solutions in terms of materials, electric machine and inverter designs, maximum speed, component cooling, power density, and performance. Additionally, the emerging materials and technologies for power electronics and electric motors are presented, identifying the challenges and opportunities for even more aggressive designs to meet the need for next-generation EVs. Some innovative drive and motor designs with the potential to meet the DOE 2025 targets are also discussed.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗

DOE OSTI2021

Bamboo Bio-composite Truck/Trailer Decking

Bamboo is one of the fastest growing plants in the world. Massively productive, bamboo will maintain that productivity with limited inputs and minimal management resulting in predictable volume and operating margins and with low overhead. The goal of this project was to develop a bamboo bio-composite trailer decking product that replaces apitong, is lighter weight, stronger and luminescent. The collaboration partners, Fontaine, Resource Fiber and IACMI, worked closely to develop the bamboo bio-composite decking to Fontaine Trailer’s (end-user) specifications. The various technological objectives were (a) To conduct a comprehensive Design of Experiments study for bamboo composites to understand the structure-property relationships for different resin composites and bamboo forms (strips, woven, bulk etc); (b) To establish the nail pull out characteristics of trailer deck geometry bamboo composite form. The nail pull out is a critical test in trailer decks; (c) To design, process and prototype select number of trailer decking planks for Fontaine evaluation; and (d) To conduct life cycle analysis to conduct energy calculations from the various conversion steps of the bamboo from crop to product. The project meets DOE/IACMI metrics of reduced embodied energy, lightweighting and lowering the cost of the end product. It also offers a green solution to a value-added application, i.e. trailer decking. The development goals and benefits of bamboo composite decking included: A. Decreased weight when compared to Apitong and Gen 1, thereby reducing operating costs and petroleum usage due to increased miles per gallon. B. Flexibility to allow camber design into trailers. C. Luminescence to increase safety during low light and dark conditions. D. Composite material to maximize use of bamboo bio-composites as substitute for petroleum-based composites. E. Embedded layer(s) of conditioned bamboo for added strength and stability. F. Improved safety over Apitong by temporary cargo indentation in planks for better stability. G. Cradle-to-cradle design so end-of-life becomes beginning-of-life for other products. Resource Fiber’s bamboo biocomposite trailer decking passed nail pullout tests as compared to apitong (incumbent), was lighter weight than apitong, and used less embodied energy particularly when bamboo is sourced domestically. The planks were optimized in the lab setting to the extent possible and successfully installed on the trailer at Fontaine for field testing. Despite the process not being fully optimized due to through-heat and tooling limitations within the budget constraints, the prototype decking withstood 400 cycles of reverse fatigue loading of a 107,000 lb Caterpillar 349F which was extreme conditions of field testing by Fontaine Trailer. Resource Fiber plans to outsource production of a next round of planks with a commercial pultrusion processor, then to do a re-test with Fontaine Trailers. Tooling specific to the part is required. Long-term commercial plans are to continue outsourcing production while supplying bamboo fiber and mats. Commercial markets include heavy haul trailers, military trailers, and decking for marine, industrial and residential use.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2021

Medium and Heavy Duty Vehicle Powertrain Electrification and Fleet Demonstration

The Contract Award Grant # EE0007513 dated 2 June, 2016 is for the design, development and demonstration of medium duty package delivery vehicles that will result in a 100% increase in fuel economy as measured in miles per gallon. The project was proposed in 3 phases over two budget periods. The Phases were: 1. Modeling and Simulation – This phase was completed and formed the basis of the specifications for the design and build of the physical systems. The modeling and simulation was conducted by AVL and used real world package delivery routes that AVL mapped. The motors, battery pack, range extender and balance of plant support systems were modeled and iterated until a system with the desired fuel economy improvement was realized. Early design of the major subsystems using the actual vehicle space constraints was also completed. This phase was successfully completed in May of 2017. 2. 1st Build and FE Confirmation - This phase was completed and resulted in the final design, release, procurement and build of all major vehicle systems for commissioning into the first vehicle. The work was a partnered effort between McLaren and AVL. McLaren built the eAxle system while AVL built the range extender and integrated the range extender, battery and balance of plant sub-systems into the first vehicle with a control system to make it operate. Prior to the end of this phase a real world HIL system test gave evidence that the fuel economy improvement would be achieved in the real world. This phase was exited with a 7 month delay due mostly to procurement and supply base issues and ended in May, 2018. 3. Final Build and Demonstration - This phase included the final build and commissioning of the four program vehicles and the operation of a demonstration on a set of routes near San Diego California. During this phase, a multitude of issues arose in different systems in the vehicle. These issue resolution exercises were quite complex and caused repeated delays but were all successfully completed. It should also be noted that an early commercialization analysis resulted in the conclusion that the complexity of the system would not make it cost effective, leading to the start of a follow-on design that used newly available component technologies to specify a more cost effective system. This design will be repurposed and put into demonstration on a separately (non-DOE) funded program. It was decided and agreed with DOE that this phase should be considered completed. The knowledge and know-how gained on this program has been incorporated into and transferred to the new program. This phase and the entire program was considered closed on June 1, 2021.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗

DOE OSTI2023

Grid-Integrated Production of Fischer-Tropsch Synfuels from Nuclear Power

Idaho National Laboratory (INL) investigates the relative economic profitability of an integrated energy system (IES) coupling an NPP with a synfuel production process at selected case study locations across the United States. In the synfuel IES, a high-temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) plant is thermally and electrically coupled with an NPP to produce zero-carbon hydrogen. The synthetic fuel is produced from this H 2 combined with a CO 2 supply using the reverse water gas shift process followed by the Fischer-Tropsch (FT) reaction. This analysis considers a system in which the CO 2 is sourced from regional CO 2 emitters via the construction and operation of pipeline-based CO 2 supply networks. Locating the FT plant at the same site as the NPP and HTSE plants enables the NPP to provide zero-carbon heat and power to the HTSE plant and zero-carbon power to the FT plant as well as avoid the requirement for long-distance H 2 product transport from the HTSE plant to the FT plant. Hydrogen storage is used to enable the NPP to dispatch power to the electrical grid (instead of the HTSE plant) when grid demand increases, thus enabling the FT plant to continue to operate in a steady-state production mode. The ability to cease hydrogen production for several hours within each day enables the NPP to provide power to the grid to balance the electricity market during peak periods and maximize revenues for the nuclear synfuel IES. The FT process design considered has a 99% carbon conversion efficiency. The use of nuclear energy and nuclear energy-derived hydrogen enables synfuel production to achieve this high level of carbon utilization. Additionally, the life-cycle carbon emissions of the nuclear-based synfuel production process are very low, with WTW emissions of approximately 25 gCO 2 e/MJ, including steam credits (generated from FT process excess heat), and approximately 7 gCO 2 e/MJ, if steam credits are excluded. This compares favorably with the WTW emissions of 90.5 gCO 2 e/MJ for a compression-ignition, direct injection (CIDI) vehicle with a fuel economy of 31.6 miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPGGE), using low-sulfur diesel produced using conventional petroleum production and refining processes. Several NPPs in various regions of the U.S. are considered as case study analyses. Supply locations and transportation via pipeline of the CO 2 feedstock to the NPP site are analyzed through the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) CO 2 Transport Cost model. The team finds that the amount of CO 2 generated by different sectors is sufficient for the synfuel production process at all locations considered. The CO 2 transportation costs are functions of the distance of the source to the NPP location, the CO 2 capture cost at the source, and the quantity of CO 2 transported. Historical electricity prices for the NPP case study locations are collected and analyzed. Monthly average prices, price range, and duration of negative-price periods vary among these locations. For each location, an auto-regressive moving average (ARMA) model is trained on historical electricity price data. ARMA validation is done to ensure the synthetic price distributions represent one of historical prices with high fidelity. Synthetic time series from these ARMA models are used in a coupled dispatch and system optimization in the Holistic Energy Resource Optimization Network (HERON) to compute the differential net present value (NPV) of the IES. The team finds that this econometric is positive, ranging from $14M–1.3bn (2020) depending on the location. The optimal synfuel IES configuration to obtain this increase in NPV often maximizes the size of the synfuel production process with regards to the size of the NPP. However, the team shows that the NPP still plays a stabilizing role for the grid: In periods of high prices and high loads, more electricity from the NPP is sent to the grid. A high variability of electricity prices and extreme maximum prices tend to drive up electricity production. While it requires significant investment, the synfuel IES could increase the economic profitability for the existing fleet of LWRs across the country while still maintaining the grid stabilizer role of NPPs. During its lifetime, the main costs for the nuclear synfuel IES are the carbon feedstock transportation costs, followed by the capital expenses (CAPEX) and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs while the revenue comes first from the IRA H 2 production tax credit (PTC) and then from the sales of synfuel products. The profitability of the synfuel IES is most sensitive to the value of the hydrogen PTC and the synfuel products as well as the cost of the carbon feedstock, highlighting the importance of governmental incentives regarding hydrogen, carbon emissions, and synfuel in driving the deployment of future nuclear synfuel IESs.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2023

Volvo Pathway to Cost-Effective Commercialized Freight Efficiency (SuperTruck 2)

Volvo’s SuperTruck 2 (ST2) built on the success of the SuperTruck 1 (ST1) project, with the objective to research, develop, and demonstrate a Class 8 long-haul tractor-trailer concept truck designed with an integrated approach to maximize freight efficiency and achieve the following goals: - Greater than 100% improvement in vehicle freight efficiency (FE) on a ton-mile-per-gallon basis, with a stretch goal of 120% improvement relative to a 2009 baseline. - Greater than or equal to 55% engine brake thermal efficiency (BTE) demonstrated in an operational engine at a 65-mph cruise point on a dynamometer. - Develop technologies that are commercially cost effective in terms of a simple payback. This cooperative agreement with the US Department of Energy (DOE) had a total project cost of $40,000,000 with a 50% cost share, or $20,000,000, paid by the DOE. This project was awarded to Volvo Technology of America, LLC, who was the prime recipient and project lead. Metalsa, Michelin, Wabash, Bergstrom, University of Michigan, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Johnson Matthey, Knight Transportation, Wegmans, and Motivo were partners / sub-recipients in this project.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Development and Demonstration of Advanced Engine and Vehicle Technologies For Class 8 Heavy Duty Vehicle (Supertruck II)

The PACCAR SuperTruck II program has completed the planned technical work on the project. This work includes the planned vehicle demonstrator showing a greater than 100% improvement in vehicle freight efficiency (on a ton-mile-per-gallon basis) relative to a 2009 baseline, and an engine system demonstration achieving a greater than 55% engine brake thermal efficiency at a 65-mph cruise point on a dynamometer. Both program targets were exceeded by PACCAR with robust margins. Finally, PACCAR used technologies that have a possible route to production, with no specialty or unrealistic solutions proposed.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗

DOE OSTI2022

Port of New York and New Jersey Drayage Electrification Analysis

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) evaluated the potential for drayage electrification in the Port of New York and New Jersey (PoNYNJ), with a focus on operators: Harbor Freight Transport (HF), Safeway Trucking (SWT), and International Motor Freight Inc (IMF). This report summarizes the data collection and electrification evaluation of all three drayage operators, includes detailed operational data, and identifies the performance requirements for battery electric tractors (BETs) and corresponding infrastructure operated within the context of PoNYNJ drayage operation. This report also details a methodology to evaluate opportunities, strategies, and challenges associated with future expansions of BETs in meeting PANYNJ emissions goals. The Port Authority has established a goal of achieving Net Zero carbon emissions by 2050 across all facilities, including from tenant and stakeholder sources such as drayage trucks. NREL used real-world performance data collected on the three PoNYNJ drayage operations, along with modeling and analysis tools to compare BET to diesel trucks. From March to July 2021, NREL collected 1Hz vehicle and engine data from 46 drayage trucks at the three operators totaling nearly 121,000 miles of operation, providing enough information to assess vehicle operations for electrification potential. A Future Automotive Systems Technology Simulator (FASTSim) electric truck powertrain model was validated using PoNYNJ data and scenarios were run to evaluate drayage truck electrification requirements over the real-world cycles. The first scenario examined BET viability with minimal changes to existing operations. This assumes the trucks charge when stopped for two hours or longer, have a functional battery size of 375 kWh, and can charge at 270 kilowatts (kW) average which are the specification of the commercially available Freightliner eCascadia. The second scenario looked at what operational, charging infrastructure, and BET technology changes would be needed to fully electrify. Finally, detailed analysis was run on charging rate structure to understand operational costs to the fleets. The studied drayage trucks averaged 5.1 MPG, spent roughly 9% of their energy at idle, and drove an average of 140 miles per day with a maximum daily distance of 573 miles. The FASTSim model results indicate a comparable BET would use 417 kWh of energy per day on average accounting for cargo weight, which is close to the full usable capacity of the eCascadia currently available on the market. Based on the daily average operating data, partial fleet electrification is possible with current technology. However, some specific days of operation would require over 1,600 kWh of energy due to longer distances traveled by the trucks and more intense operation. Trucks used for long distance and intense operation cannot be readily electrified with current technology without operational changes. Full adoption of BETs could reduce CO 2 emissions from these fleets by roughly 75% today, eliminating 76 metric tons of CO 2 (MTCO 2 ) per vehicle each year, which equates to 24,100 MTCO 2 per year for all three operators. Commercially available direct current fast chargers (DCFC) have charge rates up to 350 kW. Based on the average daily modeled energy use for each operator, current industrial rate structures, and the assumption of 350 kW peak charging, full drayage electrification would increase electricity consumption. In addition, peak demand usage would increase with unmanaged charging along with cost of electricity having a direct impact on cost per mile for electric vehicles. The resulting cost per mile for BETs along with comparable cost per mile for conventional diesel trucks are also examined at $\$$4.00 per gallon of diesel. It will be important for PANYNJ and the drayage operators within the PoNYNJ to consider these load impacts to their existing electrical infrastructure and devise operational strategies that avoid coincident charging of vehicles to mitigate demand charges. Despite these electricity cost increases, savings from reductions in diesel consumption will help offset the costs of this increased electricity consumption. However, prices of both electricity and diesel are subject to change based on various factors meaning the realized savings will vary over time. This shows BETs could be cost-competitive on an energy cost per mile basis for all scenarios while diesel is above $\$$3.00/gal. Further, if diesel prices dropped to the 15-year low of $2.33/gal, it would still be cost competitive to operate the EVs with electricity costs of 16.3 ¢/kWh or less.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗

DOE OSTI2026

One Earth Energy FEED Process Design Basis

This report establishes the process design basis for the front-end engineering design (FEED) of a carbon capture and injection facility at One Earth Energy's (OEE) ethanol production plant in Gibson City, Illinois, developed as part of the Illinois Storage Corridor CarbonSAFE Phase III project. The facility is designed to compress and dehydrate up to approximately 458,000 metric tonnes of CO 2 per year, sourced directly from OEE's ethanol fermenters, for permanent injection into a saline aquifer approximately four miles from the plant. At normal operating conditions, the system will process 1,290 metric tonnes of CO 2 per day, assuming 355 operating days per year and an ethanol production rate of 160 million gallons per year. The proposed process trains a multistage centrifugal blower with a five-stage reciprocating compressor, delivering CO 2 to the injection wellhead at up to 1,500 psig. Triethylene glycol (TEG) dehydration, applied after the fourth compression stage, reduces water content to a target of 10 lb/MMscf, well within the 30 lb/MMscf injection limit. Beyond dehydration, no additional treatment is required; trace impurities including oxygen and nitrogen will remain in the injected stream. Key design considerations include the absence of spare cooling tower capacity at the site, necessitating new cooling infrastructure, and the need for a new electrical substation to support large motor loads. The facility is designed for continuous, largely unattended operation, monitored around the clock by existing OEE operations staff. This document serves as the foundational reference for all subsequent detailed engineering activities associated with the OEE CO 2 injection facility.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2021

RACEE Energy Efficiency Implementation for Holy Cross, Alaska (Final Report)

The Deg Hit’an Athabascan village of Holy Cross is located along the Ghost Creek Slough bank of the Yukon River. Holy Cross is home to almost 170 people who are accustomed to both the advantages and disadvantages of living off the road system - the nearest major road is some 300 miles to the east. On one hand, Holy Cross residents have greater access to practicing traditional activities like subsistence hunting and fishing. Families in the area have fished, hunted, and gathered food together for many generations and the land is imbued with this special history. But compared to Alaskans living on the road system, the residents of Holy Cross pay higher prices for basic necessities since goods are transported via air service and seasonal barge shipments. Holy Cross residents also accumulate higher energy costs, as diesel fuel is the primary fuel source for heating and lighting and costs over $\$6$ per gallon. Affording these high living costs becomes a barrier for Holy Cross residents who want to stay in the village or participate in subsistence activities requiring transportation by boat or ATV.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗

DOE OSTI2021

Remote Alaska Communities Energy Efficiency Competition: Energy Efficiency for the Gem of the Yukon (Final Report)

Over the past decade, the City of Ruby has been proactive in working to reduce cost and energy use in the community. Ruby (Tl’aa’ologhe) is a remote city in Alaska located on the south bank of the Yukon River near the Kilbuck-Kuskokwim Mountains, about 50 air miles east of Galena and 230 air miles west of Fairbanks. As of 2019, the community has a population of over 150 people and most of Ruby’s residents are Koyukon Athabascan. Ruby has a long history of promoting local efficiency and clean energy in an effort to become more sustainable. Between 2007-2010, the community hosted Alaska’s first demonstration of an in-river hydrokinetic test project, sponsored by the Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council. In 2011, a 5kW solar photo-voltaic (PV) array was installed by the Interior Regional Housing Authority. In 2012, the community had a new power plant constructed by the Alaska Energy Authority that supplies waste heat to the washeteria, clinic and public safety garage, saving the community more than 4,000 gallons of heating fuel per year. The clinic, constructed by the Tanana Chiefs Conference, is one of the most energy efficient buildings in the interior and utilizes new building efficiency standards that were passed by the tribes. It has a 5kW solar PV array that provides energy into the local electric grid and offsets approximately 20% of the annual energy use. Building on this legacy, the City of Ruby entered into Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) Remote Alaska Communities Energy Efficiency Competition (RACEE) in 2016, pledging to reduce per-capita energy use 15% by 2020. During the second phase of the competition, 13 communities including Ruby were provided funding for tailored technical assistance to measure energy use and create energy efficiency plans.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗