Plutonic rocks of Iceland
Suggesting topics for study of coarse-grained plutonic rocks of Iceland
Mutschler, F. E.↗
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Spectral reflectance and discrimination of plutonic rocks in the 0.45- to 2.45-micron region
Visible and near-infrared field spectral reflectance measurements of plutonic rocks were acquired in the 0.45- to 2.45-micron region with a portable field reflectance spectrometer. These spectra were used to determine spectral signatures for the various rock types and to evaluate the separability of these rocks based on their spectral characteristics. A total of 135 samples were divided into 11 groups based on their mineralogy. These 11 groups approximately correspond to traditional rock classifications and include five granitic groups, three gabbroic groups, and three ultramafic groups. The positions, intensity, and presence of iron, CO3(-2), and Al-OH and Mg-OH absorption bands varied among the 11 groups. Each rock group also had a range of albedos characteristic of the group. Stepwise linear discriminant analysis was performed on the spectral data to determine the separability of the 11 groups. Classification accuracy for 30 equally spaced wavelength bands between 0.45 and 2.45 microns was 78% with 10% serious misclassifications. The same analysis was repeated, limiting the spectral data to the wavelength regions corresponding to the proposed Landsat D thematic mapper scanner.
Blom, R. G.↗
Chemistry and petrology of the Apennine Front, Apollo 15. I - KREEP basalts and plutonic rocks. II - Impact melt rocks
The mineralogy, petrology, and chemistry of rock fragments for the Apennine Front coarse fines (10-4 and 4-2 mm) have been determined. The data are consistent with a single eruptive event that produced several flows. It is found that most of the plutonic rocks are ferroan in nature, with a few belonging to the Mg-suite. The mineral and bulk chemistry of KREEP basalts and the composition of ferroan anorthosites are discussed. Petrographic studies of 21 impact melts are also presented, showing a variety of textures. It is found that the Apollo 15 impact melts are mixtures of low-K Fra Mauro, KREEP, and plutonic components. The Ni/Ir ratios of the melt rocks are shown to be greater than chondritic values, indicating ancient and/or iron meteorite components.
Simon, S. B.↗
Apollo 14 inverted pigeonites - Possible samples of lunar plutonic rocks.
Analysis of 'inverted pigeonites' found in Apollo 14 samples 14082 and 14083 (a polymict breccia, the 'white rock') by a combination of optical, electron probe, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction techniques. These 'inverted pigeonites' are regarded as samples of plutonic rocks that have been blasted out of the Imbrium Basin. It is also concluded that lunar pigeonites will invert to orthopyroxenes, given sufficiently slow cooling histories even in very anhydrous environments.
Papike, J. J.↗
Processes involved in the formation of magnesian-suite plutonic rocks from the highlands of the Earth's Moon
The earliest evolution of the Moon likely included the formation of a magma ocean and the subsequent development of anorthositic flotation cumulates. This primary anorthositic crust was then intruded by mafic magmas which crystallized to form the lunar highlands magnesian suite. The present study is a compilation of petrologic, mineral-chemical, and geochemical information on all pristine magnesian-suite plutonic rocks and the interpretation of this data in light of 18 'new' samples. Of these 18 clasts taken from Apollo 14 breccias, 12 are probably pristine and include four dunites, two norites, four troctolites, and two anorthosites. Radiogenic isotopic whole rock data also are reported for one of the 'probably pristine' anorthositic troctolites, sample 14303,347. The relatively low Rb content and high Sm and Nd abundances of 14303,347 suggest that this cumulate rock was derived from a parental magma which had these chemical characteristics. Trace element, isotopic, and mineral-chemical data are used to interpret the total highlands magnesian suite as crustal precipitates of a primitive KREEP (possessing a K-, rare earth element (REE)-, and P-enriched chemical signature) basalt magma. This KREEP basalt was created by the mixing of ascending ultramafic melts from the lunar interior with urKREEP (the late, K-, REE-, and P-enriched residuum of the lunar magma ocean). A few samples of the magnesian suite with extremely elevated large-ion lithophile elements (5-10x other magnesian-suite rocks) cannot be explained by this model or any other model of autometasomatism, equilibrium crystallization, or 'local melt-pocket equilibrium' without recourse to an extremely large-ion lithophile element-enriched parent liquid. It is difficult to generate parental liquids which are 2-4 x higher in the REE than average lunar KREEP, unless the liquids are the basic complement of a liquid-liquid pair, i.e., the so-called 'REEP-fraction,' from the silicate liquid immiscibility of urKREEP. Scarce age information on lunar rocks suggests that magnesian-suite magmatism was initiated at progressively more recent time from the northeast to the southwest on the lunar nearside from 4.45 to 4.25 Ga.
Snyder, Gregory A.↗
Mineral compositions of plutonic rocks from the Lewis Hills massif, Bay of Islands ophiolite
Mineral compositions of residual and cumulate rocks from the Lewis Hills massif of the Bay of Islands ophiolite complex are reported and interpreted in the context of magnetic processes involved in the geochemical evolution of spatially associated diabase dikes. The mineral compositions reflect greater degrees of partial melting than most abyssal peridotites do and appear to represent the most depleted end of abyssal peridotite compositions. Subsolidus equilibration between Cr-Al spinal and olivine generally has occurred at temperatures of 700 to 900 C. The spinel variations agree with the overall fractionation of basaltic magmas producing spinels with progressively lower Cr numbers. The compositions of clinopyroxenes suggest that the fractionation of two different magma series produced the various cumulate rocks.
Smith, Susan E.↗
On identifying parent plutonic rocks from lunar breccia and soil fragments
Breccia fragments expected from a well-studied boulder of Stillwater anorthosite have been modeled to test the ability to identify parental rock types from examination of breccia and soil fragments. Depending on their size, the boulder fragments give distributions that suggest mixtures of rock types, including monominerallic anorthosite with subordinant amounts of more gabbroic anorthosite, anorthosite, and gabbro for small fragments. The distribution of FeO in samples of lunar ferroan anorthosite (FAN) indicates that FAN has a heterogeneous distribution of mafic minerals like the boulder.
Haskin, Larry A.↗
Europium mass balance in polymict samples and implications for plutonic rocks of the lunar crust
The mean concentrations of Sm and Eu in the lunar surface crust were analyzed by correlating the Sm concentration and the Sm/Eu ratio with Th concentration obtained from published data on a large number of polymict samples from various locations in the lunar highlands, and using the value of 0.91 microg/g for the mean Th concentration of the highlands surface crust obtained by the orbiting gamma-ray experiments. The mean concentration of Sm in the lunar surface crust was found to be between 2 and 3 microg/g, and that of Eu between 0.7 and 1.2 microg/g. The results indicate that there is no significant enrichment or depletion of Eu, compared to Sm, relative to chondritic abundances; i.e., there is no significant 'Eu anomaly' in average upper crust, contrary to predictions by some earlier investigators.
Korotev, Randy L.↗
Discrimination of alkalinity in granitoid Rocks: A potential TIMS application
In mineral exploration, the ability to distinguish and map petrochemical variations of magmatic rocks can be a useful reconnaissance tool. Alkalinity is one such petrochemical parameter and is used in the characterization of granitoid rocks. In quartz normative plutonic rocks, alkalinity is related to the composition and abundance of feldspars. Together with quartz abundance, knowledge of feldspar modes allows the classification of these igneous rocks according to the Streckeisen diagram. Alternative classification schemes rely on whole rock geochemistry instead of mineral identifications. The relative ease of obtaining whole rock analyses means that geochemical classifications tend to be favored in exploration geology. But the technique of thermal infrared spectroscopy of rocks yields information on mineralogy and is one that can be applied remotely. The goal of the current work then is to establish whether data from TIMS can be used to distinguish the mineralogical variations that relate to alkalinity. An ideal opportunity to test this thesis arises from the work presented in a paper by Dewitt (1989). This paper contains the results of mapping and analysis of Proterozoic plutonic rocks in north-central Arizona. The map resulting from this work delineates plutons according to alkalinity in an effort to establish a trend or polarity in the regional magmatism. Also contained within this paper are brief descriptions of the mineralogy of half of the region's plutons. This combination of mineralogical and geochemical information was the rationale behind choosing this area as a site for TIMS over flights. A portion of the region centered on the northern Bradshaw Mountains was selected because it contains plutons of all three alkalinity classifications (alkali-calcic, calc-alkalic, and calic) present on DeWitt's map within a relatively small area. The site was flown in August of 1994 and the data received a few days before the writing of this manuscript. Most of this paper is devoted to the description of laboratory based spectroscopy and spectral simulations. These are required to gain insight into the correct procedures for enhancing the relatively small differences in the low spectral resolution TIMS data.
Ruff, Steven W.↗
Survey of lunar plutonic and granulitic lithic fragments
A catalog of lunar plutonic rocks and granulitic impactites belonging to the ANT suite has been compiled. The coarser-grained, plutonic rocks in the compilation are probably pristine; they belong to two groups, Mg-rich plutonic rocks and anorthosites, with a preponderance of the latter type. The granulitic impactites, however, have bulk and mineral compositions that fall between the two groups defined by the pristine nonmare samples of Warren and Wasson (1977). Thus the granulitic impactites may have originated by metamorphism of mixed impactites in early breccia sheets. The catalog, representative of the lunar crust before the end of heavy bombardment, suggests a crust with over 78 vol. % plagioclase and about equal proportions of material with noritic and troctolitic affinity.
Bickel, C. E.↗
Lunar plagioclase - A mineralogical study.
Mineralogical properties of calcic plagioclase have been analyzed using U-stage, microprobe, X-ray precession cameras, and a 650-kV electron microscope. The orientation of the optical indicatrix in lunar and eucrite anorthites is described with Euler angles. All crystals, except one, show strong b- and diffuse c-reflections in precession photographs. In 10017, b-split-reflections have been found. Dark-field electron micrographs of 14310 anorthite show both large and small b-antiphase domains, and an exsolution structure in crystals that display b-split reflections in the diffractogram. Diffuseness of c-reflections in X-ray photographs and the inability to resolve c-domains in electron micrographs in An 94 anorthite of 14310 indicate relatively rapid cooling of this rock compared to plutonic rocks.
Wenk, H.-R.↗
Olivine crystal types in harrisitic rocks of the Rhum pluton and in Archean spinifex rocks
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Donaldson, C. H.↗
Apollo 15 Mg- and Fe-norites - A redefinition of the Mg-suite differentiation trend
The Apollo 15 highland rocks from the Apennine Front include clasts of mafic plutonic rocks from deep in the lunar crust that were brought to the surface by the Imbrium and Serenitatis impacts. The Apollo 15 norites exhibit wide variations in mineral and bulk compositions and include Fe-norites that plot between the three major pristine rock fields on a diagram of Mg' in mafic minerals vs An in paglioclase. Based on assemblages and compositions of minerals, and on ratios of elemental abundances, it is concluded that these Apollo 15 Fe-norites are differentiated members of the Mg-norite suite. The Apollo 15 and 17 norites and troctolites form a closely related suite of rocks, whose variations in mineral compositions represent the main differentiation trend of the Mg-suite. This trend in mineral compositions has a steeper slope than the previous Mg-suite field. The parent magmas for these Mg-suite rocks formed by partial melting deep in the lunar mantle. Differentiation by fractional crystallization may also have included assimilation of crustal components as the magmas rose from the mantle and crystallized plutons in the lower crust.
Lindstrom, M. M.↗
Mass Flux in the Ancient Earth-Moon System and Benign Implications for the Origin of Life on Earth
The origin of life on Earth is commonly considered to have been negatively affected by intense impacting in the Hadean, with the potential for the repeated evaporation and sterilization of any ocean. The impact flux is based on scaling from the lunar crater density record, but that record has no tie to any absolute age determination for any identified stratigraphic unit older than approx. 3.9 Ga (Nectaris basin). The flux can be described in terms of mass accretion, and various independent means can be used to estimate the mass flux in different intervals. The critical interval is that between the end of essential crustal formation (approx. 4.4 Ga) and the oldest mare times (approx. 3.8 Ga). The masses of the basin-forming projectiles during Nectarian and early Imbrian times, when the last 15 of the approx.45 identified impact basins formed, can be reasonably estimated as minima. These in sum provide a minimum of 2 x 10(exp 21)g for the mass flux to the Moon during those times. If the interval was 80 million years (Nectaris 3.90 Ga, Orientale 3.82 Ga), then the flux was approx. 2 x 10(exp 13) g/yr over this period. This is higher by more than an order of magnitude than a flux curve that declines continuously and uniformly from lunar accretion to the rate inferred for the older mare plains. This rate cannot be extrapolated back increasingly into pre-Nectarian times, because the Moon would have added masses far in excess of itself in post-crust-formation time. Thus this episode was a distinct and cataclysmic set of events. There are approx. 30 pre-Nectarian basins, and they were probably part of the same cataclysm (starting at approx. 4.0 Ga?) because the crust is fairly intact, the meteoritic contamination of the pre-Nectarian crust is very low, impact melt rocks older than 3.92 Ga are virtually unknown, and ancient volcanic and plutonic rocks have survived this interval. The accretionary flux from approx. 4.4 to approx. 4.0 Ga was comparatively benign. When scaled to Earth, even the late cataclysm does not produce oceane vaporating, globally sterilizing events. The rooted concept that such events took place is based on the extrapolation of a nonexistent lunar record to the Hadean. The Earth from approx. 4.4 to approx. 3.8 Ga was comparatively peaceful, and the impacting itself could have been thermally and hydrothermally beneficial. The origin of life could have taken place at any time between 4.4 and 3.85 Ga, given the current impact constraints, and there is no justification for the claim that life originated (or re-originated) as late as 3.85 Ga in response to the end of hostile impact conditions.
Ryder, Graham↗
Introduction to the Apollo collections. Part 1: Lunar igneous rocks
The basic petrographic, chemical, and age data is presented for a representative suite of igneous rocks gathered during the six Apollo missions. Tables are given for 69 samples: 32 igneous rocks and 37 impactites (breccias). A description is given of 26 basalts, four plutonic rocks, and two pyroclastic samples. The textural-mineralogic name assigned each sample is included.
Mcgee, P. E.↗
A compilation of information and data on the Manson impact structure
A problem for the impact hypothesis for the Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) mass extinction is the apparent absence of an identifiable impact site. The Manson Impact Structure is a candidate because it is the largest recognized in the U.S.; it is relatively close to the largest and most abundant shocked quartz grains found at the K-T boundary; and its age is indistinguishable from that of the K-T boundary based on paleontological evidence, fission track dates, and preliminary Ar-40/Ar-39 measurements. The region of northwest central Iowa containing the Manson Impact Structure is covered by Quaternary glacial deposits underlain by Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks (mostly flat-lying carbonates) and Proterozoic red clastic, metamorphic, volcanic, and plutonic rocks. In a circular area about 22 miles (35 km) in diameter around Manson, Iowa, this normal sequence is absent or disturbed and near the center of the disturbed area granitic basement rocks have been uplifted some 20,000 ft (6000m). Attention was drawn to Manson initially by the unusual quality of the groundwater there. Within the structure three roughly concentric zones of rock associations have been identified: (1) displaced strata; (2) completely disrupted strata, and igneous and metamorphic rocks. Manson was established as an impact structure based on its circular shape, its central uplift, and the presence of shocked quartz within the granitic central uplift. A gravity survey identified locations of low-density brecciated rocks and high-density uplifted crystalline rocks, but the outer boundary of the structure could not be established. Aeromagnetic and ground magnetic surveys showed locations and depths of shallowly buried crystalline rock and the locations of faults. A refraction seismic survey identified the crystalline central uplift, determined that the average elevation of bedrock is 70 ft (20 m) higher outside the structure than within, and was used to map the bedrock topography within the structure. A connection between the Manson impact and the K-T boundary may be established or refuted through study of the impact energy, the impact time, and composition of host rock, possible impactors, and impact melts.
Hartung, Jack B.↗
Chronology of early lunar crust
The chronology of lunar rocks is summarized. The oldest pristine (i.e., lacking meteoritic contamination of admixed components) lunar rock, recently dated with Sm-Nd by Lugmair, is a ferroan anorthosite, with an age of 4.44 + 0.02 Ga. Ages of Mg-suite rocks (4.1 to 4.5 Ga) have large uncertainties, so that age differences between lunar plutonic rock suites cannot yet be resolved. Most mare basalts crystallized between 3.1 and 3.9 Ga. The vast bulk of the lunar crust, therefore, formed before the oldest preserved terrestrial rocks. If the Moon accreted at 4.56 Ga, then 120 Ma may have elapsed before lunar crust was formed.
Dasch, E. J.↗
Rapid discrimination of granitic rock compositions by low-resolution near-infrared reflectance
The slopes of near-infrared spectra between approximately 1 and 2 microns from quartz-bearing plutonic rocks are strongly correlated with rock chemistry determined by X-ray spectrometry. The empirically derived predictive equations provide compositional data of adequate precision and resolution to discern patterns of regional geochemical variation in granitic batholithic rocks of southern California. As an analytical method, infrared spectrometry is rapid and inexpensive, and the method has potential in applications to direct field measurements and to data from aircraft and spacecraft scanner systems of relatively low spectral and spatial resolution, provided vegetative cover and surface alteration are not prohibitively masking.
Baird, A. K.↗