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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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Algorithms and Sensors for Small Robot Path Following

Tracked mobile robots in the 20 kg size class are under development for applications in urban reconnaissance. For efficient deployment, it is desirable for teams of robots to be able to automatically execute path following behaviors, with one or more followers tracking the path taken by a leader. The key challenges to enabling such a capability are (l) to develop sensor packages for such small robots that can accurately determine the path of the leader and (2) to develop path following algorithms for the subsequent robots. To date, we have integrated gyros, accelerometers, compass/inclinometers, odometry, and differential GPS into an effective sensing package. This paper describes the sensor package, sensor processing algorithm, and path tracking algorithm we have developed for the leader/follower problem in small robots and shows the result of performance characterization of the system. We also document pragmatic lessons learned about design, construction, and electromagnetic interference issues particular to the performance of state sensors on small robots.

path following↗

Human discrimination of visual direction of motion with and without smooth pursuit eye movements

It has long been known that ocular pursuit of a moving target has a major influence on its perceived speed (Aubert, 1886; Fleischl, 1882). However, little is known about the effect of smooth pursuit on the perception of target direction. Here we compare the precision of human visual-direction judgments under two oculomotor conditions (pursuit vs. fixation). We also examine the impact of stimulus duration (200 ms vs. ~800 ms) and absolute direction (cardinal vs. oblique). Our main finding is that direction discrimination thresholds in the fixation and pursuit conditions are indistinguishable. Furthermore, the two oculomotor conditions showed oblique effects of similar magnitudes. These data suggest that the neural direction signals supporting perception are the same with or without pursuit, despite remarkably different retinal stimulation. During fixation, the stimulus information is restricted to large, purely peripheral retinal motion, while during steady-state pursuit, the stimulus information consists of small, unreliable foveal retinal motion and a large efference-copy signal. A parsimonious explanation of our findings is that the signal limiting the precision of direction judgments is a neural estimate of target motion in head-centered (or world-centered) coordinates (i.e., a combined retinal and eye motion signal) as found in the medial superior temporal area (MST), and not simply an estimate of retinal motion as found in the middle temporal area (MT).

Saccades/physiology↗

Training aircraft design considerations based on the successive organization of perception in manual control

The thesis that pilot skill development in the Navy approach and landing task is very strongly tied to the aircraft closure rate and, therefore, that pilot training for this task should be based on an appropriate progression closure rate is considered. A rational and explicit determination of design point approach speeds as well as other important aerodynamic features for training aircraft is also considered. Two keys are discussed: recognition of the significance of transitioning from a purely compensatory control loop technique to one involving a pursuit crossfeed between throttle and pitch attitude, and addressing the terminal flight path adjustment in terms of range-to-go.

Heffley, R. K.↗

Three-dimensional tracking with misalignment between display and control axes

Consideration is given to experiments for examining 3D pursuit tracking when operators of teleoperation simulations are faced with misalignment between the display and control frames of reference. It is concluded that manual 3D pursuit tracking errors produced by display-control rotational misalignments have two linearly separable components: a purely visual component and a visual-motor component. Both components may independently influence the tracking performance. Human subjects can simultaneously adapt to a variety of display-control misalignments if position control during pursuit tracking is used with a simulation update rate of at least 30 Hz. This capability will enable trained operators to quickly adapt to changes in the position and orientation of viewing cameras during teleoperation and telemanipulation.

Ellis, Stephen R.↗

An input adaptive, pursuit tracking model of the human opertor

Developed and evaluated is a simple model of the input adaptive behavior of the human operator (HO) in a pursuit tracking task in which the plant controlled consists of a pure gain. If it is assumed that the HO is approximately an optimal predictor using only position and velocity information, then there is a simple method of computing the values of the model parameters in terms of the autocorrelation function of the input signal. Experimental evidence indicates that the ability of the HO to use velocity information decreases with increasing signal velocity indicating that a biased estimator of the velocity weighting should be used. A suitable approximation is derived which has rapid convergence and low variance. The model thus derived is compared to actual subject transfer functions and is found to be in close agreement. In addition to tracking random processes the model can adapt to and track deterministic signals, such as sine waves, up to approximately the frequency at which human operators begin to track precognitively.

Ware, J. R.↗

Smooth Pursuit of a Partially Occluded Object

There has long been qualitative evidence that humans can pursue an object defined only by the motion of its parts. We explored this quantitatively using an occluded diamond stimulus. Four subjects (one naive) tracked a line-figure diamond moving along an elliptical path (0.9 Hz) either clockwise (CW) or counterclockwise (CCW) behind either an X-shaped aperture (CROSS) or two vertical rectangular apertures (BARS), which obscured the corners. Although the stimulus consisted of only four line segments (108 cd/square m) moving within a visible aperture (0.2 cd/square m) behind a foreground (38 cd/square m), it is largely perceived as a coherently moving diamond. The inter-saccadic portions of eye-position traces were fit with sinusoids. All subjects tracked object motion with considerable temporal accuracy. The mean phase lag was 5 deg/6 deg (CROSS/BARS) and the mean relative phase between the horizontal and vertical components was +95 deg/+92 deg (CW) and -85 deg/-75 deg (CCW), which is close to perfect. Furthermore, a chi-square analysis showed that 56% of BARS trials were consistent with tracking the correct elliptical shape (p is less than 0.05), although segment motion was purely vertical. These data disprove the main tenet of most models of pursuit: that it is a system that seeks to minimize retinal image motion through negative feedback. Rather, the main drive must be a visual signal which has already integrated spatiotemporal retinal information into an object-motion signal.

Stone, L. S.↗

Improved Benchmarking of Cohesive Elements in Abaqus Standard for Predicting Disbond and Delamination in Composite Structures

Traditional approaches for aircraft certification require the assumption of an initial flaw condition, either represented as barely visible impact damage (BVID) or through inclusion of a Teflon insert to serve as surrogate damage. Based on the initial composite damage state, the structure must be shown to demonstrate structural durability and damage tolerance (DaDT) according to the following criteria: a. Damage displays no detrimental growth under cyclic loading b. The structure is able to sustain design limit load (DLL) Currently, the only available manner for validating structural performance is through test. Since damage can occur over a wide variety of areas within a structure, this approach has proven to be increasingly expensive and time consuming for composite airframes and acreage structure within the design-test-certification building block. A further complicating factor is the requirement to accurately capture the most critical damage morphologies as a starting condition. To understand the severity of the damage, it is either required to experimentally determine the most critical areas at tremendous expense or rely on legacy data of similar structural testing, which limits design space expansion. A preferred solution is to use advanced analysis to provide improved understanding of load margins for critical locations based on a wide variety of potential starting damage conditions. The standard industry approach for DaDT certification adheres to the use of the traditional virtual crack closure technique (VCCT) method. VCCT is generally a preferred method because it conforms to the current certification principles of damage from a known flaw, and when used correctly, can be effective at predicting delamination propagation under static and cyclic loading. The VCCT method requires the inclusion of an initial flaw in the finite element (FE) model requiring a-priori knowledge of the flaw location. This in turn requires a plethora of analysis cases to be examined to cover a reasonable span of potential damage states. Additionally, the VCCT approach requires node-to-node connectivity rendering it incompatible with the best practices and approaches for using continuum damage mechanics (CDM) based progressive damage and failure analysis (PDFA) tools within a typical FE solver. Alternatives to VCCT have emerged in the form of cohesive elements which utilize the cohesive zone model (CZM). Unlike VCCT which models linear elastic fracture mechanics, cohesive elements couples continuum and fracture based responses through the use of bilinear traction separation laws. These laws are defined based on a penalty stiffness, a cohesive strength, and a strain energy release rate. The approach can be mesh regularized with native cohesive elements within many FE solvers such as Abaqus and LS-DYNA. In Phase I of the NASA Advanced Composites Consortium (ACC) post-buckled stiffened panel with BVID, Strength and Life [1], the performance of cohesive elements were benchmarked in comparison to VCCT and LEFM solutions and showed good agreement using Abaqus explicit [2]. To realize savings on current and future programs, it is still necessary to close technical gaps related to the use of cohesive elements with Abaqus Standard. Within a program environment, standard finite element analysis is the preferred analytical capability for quasi-static loading as it eliminates uncertainty due to oscillatory behavior commonly seen with explicit analysis. This oscillatory behavior creates difficulties in writing margins of safety based on the analysis. The use of negative tangent stiffness material models complicates convergence which typically requires the use of numerical controls such as viscous damping to overcome. To date, there has not been a comprehensive study on how to establish best practices for cohesive element convergence for predictive capability within the Abaqus implicit solver. In pursuit of these goals, under the NASA ACC program, several numerical benchmark problems were proposed including pure mode I (double cantilevered beam – DCB), pure mode II (end notch flexure – ENF), and symmetric/unsymmetric evolving mixed mode (single leg bend – SLB). This paper focuses on the use of cohesive elements to model the delamination through the use of CZM. Specifically, finite element models for the DCB, ENF, symmetric SLB, and unsymmetric SLB, are developed and various solution controls for convergence are studied to develop a best practice. Once the best practice has been developed, the predictive capability of the objective CZM model is used to analyze the hat pull-off strength of a standard hat stiffened configuration under various loading conditions.

Abaqus↗

Experimental Evaluation of Silica as a Thermal Protection System for Planetary Entry Probes

The evolution and pursuit of the reflecting heat-shield concept has resulted in a refined and sophisticated high-performance material: ultra-pure, slip-cast, fused silica (SCFS). Silica is "tailored" to the intense planetary entry environments through a combination of its good ablative qualities and outstanding reflective properties in the correct spectral region. Extensive development of SCFS has produced a series of candidate materials which are experimentally evaluated and compared in a simulated entry environment. The detailed response of silica to combined heating is discussed, and the relative merits of SCFS and carbon phenolic are indicated.

David L Peterson↗

Smooth Pursuit of Flicker-Defined Motion

We examined the pursuit response to stimuli defined by space-variant flicker of a dense random dot carrier pattern. On each frame, every element of the pattern could change polarity, with a probability given by a two-dimensional Gaussian distribution. A normal distribution produces a circular region of twinkle, while inverting the distribution results in a spot of static texture in a twinkling surround. In this latter case, the carrier texture could be stationary, or could move with the twinkle modulator,thereby producing first-order motion in the region of the spot. While the twinkle-defined spot produces a strong sensation of motion, the complementary stimulus defined by the absence of twinkle does not;when viewed peripherally, it appears to move in steps even when the generating distribution moves smoothly. We examined pursuit responses to these stimuli using two techniques: 1) the eye movement correlogram, obtained by cross-correlating eye velocity with the velocity of a randomly-moving stimulus; and 2) delayed visual feedback, where transient stabilization of a target can produce spontaneous oscillations of the eye, with a period empirically observed to vary linearly with the applied delay. Both techniques provide an estimate of the internal processing time, which can be as short as100 milliseconds for a first-order target. Assessed by the correlogram method, the response to flicker defined motion is delayed by more than 100 milliseconds, and significantly weaker (especially in the vertical dimension). When initially presented in the delayed feedback condition, purely saccadic oscillation is observed. One subject eventually developed smooth oscillations (albeit with significant saccadic intrusions), showing a period-versus-delay slope similar to that observed for first-order targets. This result is somewhat surprising, given that we interpret the slope of the period-versus-delayfunction as reflecting the balance between position- and velocity-sensitive inputs to pursuit.

smooth pursuit↗

Smooth Pursuit of Flicker-Defined Motion

We examined the pursuit response to stimuli defined by space-variant flicker of a dense random dot carrier pattern. On each frame, every element of the pattern could change polarity, with a probability given by a two-dimensional Gaussian distribution. A normal distribution produces a circular region of twinkle, while inverting the distribution results in a spot of static texture in a twinkling surround. In this latter case, the carrier texture could be stationary, or could move with the twinkle modulator, thereby producing first-order motion in the region of the spot. While the twinkle-defined spot produces a strong sensation of motion, the complementary stimulus defined by the absence of twinkle does not, when viewed peripherally, it appears to move in steps even when the generating distribution moves smoothly. We examined pursuit responses to these stimuli using two techniques: 1) the eye movement correlogram, obtained by cross-correlating eye velocity with the velocity of a randomly-moving stimulus; and 2) delayed visual feedback, where transient stabilization of a target can produce spontaneous oscillations of the eye, with a period empirically observed to vary linearly with the applied delay. Both techniques provide an estimate of the internal processing time, which can be as short as 100 milliseconds for a first-order target. Assessed by the correlogram method, the response to flicker-defined motion is delayed by more than 100 milliseconds, and significantly weaker (especially in the vertical dimension). When initially presented in the delayed feedback condition, purely saccadic oscillation is observed. One subject eventually developed smooth oscillations (albeit with significant saccadic intrusions), showing a period-versus-delay slope similar to that observed for first-order targets. This result is somewhat surprising, given that we interpret the slope of the period-versus-delay-function as reflecting the balance between position- and velocity-sensitive inputs to pursuit.

eye movements↗

Pursuit Latency for Chromatic Targets

The temporal dynamics of eye movement response to a change in direction of stimulus motion has been used to compare the processing speeds of different types of stimuli (Mulligan, ARVO '97). In this study, the pursuit response to colored targets was measured to test the hypothesis that the slow response of the chromatic system (as measured using traditional temporal sensitivity measures such as contrast sensitivity) results in increased eye movement latencies. Subjects viewed a small (0.4 deg) Gaussian spot which moved downward at a speed of 6.6 deg/sec. At a variable time during the trajectory, the dot's direction of motion changed by 30 degrees, either to the right or left. Subjects were instructed to pursue the spot. Eye movements were measured using a video ophthalmoscope with an angular resolution of approximately 1 arc min and a temporal sampling rate of 60 Hz. Stimuli were modulated in chrominance for a variety of hue directions, combined with a range of small luminance increments and decrements, to insure that some of the stimuli fell in the subjects' equiluminance planes. The smooth portions of the resulting eye movement traces were fit by convolving the stimulus velocity with an exponential having variable onset latency, time constant and amplitude. Smooth eye movements with few saccades were observed for all stimuli. Pursuit responses to stimuli having a significant luminance component are well-fit by exponentials having latencies and time constants on the order of 100 msec. Increases in pursuit response latency on the order of 100-200 msec are observed in response to certain stimuli, which occur in pairs of complementary hues, corresponding to the intersection of the stimulus section with the subjects' equiluminant plane. Smooth eye movements can be made in response to purely chromatic stimuli, but are slower than responses to stimuli with a luminance component.

Mulligan, Jeffrey B.↗

In Pursuit of the FIP Effect in Late-Type Stellar Coronae

Spectral line data for several coronally active stars, in addition to EUVE Deep Survey light curves, have been analysed under this program. Much difficulty has been encountered in the study that has resulted in fewer stars being analysed than had been hoped. The difficulties stemmed from the analysis of low X-ray spectra taken with the ASCA satellite that produced results that are strongly discrepant with respect to the EUVE results. There is no obvious explanation for this, though it appears that analysis of ASCA data systematically underestimate metal abundance in hot plasmas. Consequently, the final emphasis in our analyses has been on EUVE data. Observed line profiles have being fitted in order to measure their fluxes using IDL software specially developed under this and parallel efforts.The observed line profiles deviate from pure gaussian forms, but we have found the benefits of using additional functional forms in the fitting process to be of only very small value for the lines with highest S/N. The resulting line fluxes have being processed in terms of the coronal EM using new techniques. Resulting EM distribution models are being used to finalize metallicity and abundance estimates for the stars in the program. Special account of the influence of missing lines in the spectral models has been taken.

Drake, Jeremy↗

The Impact of Deviation from Michaelis-Menten Saturation on Mathematical Model Stability Properties

Based on purely abstract ecological theory, it has been argued that a system composed of two or more consumers competing for the same resource cannot persist. By analysis on a Monod format mathematical model, Hubble and others demonstrated that this assertion is true for all but very special cases of such competing organisms which are determined by an index formed by a grouping of. the parameters which characterize the biological processes of the competing organisms. In the laboratory, using a bioreactor, Hansen and Hubble obtained confirmatory results for several cases of two competing species, and they characterized it as "qualitative confirmation" of the assertion. This result is amazing, since the analysis required the exact equality of the hey index, and it seems certain that no pair of organism species could have exactly equal values. It is quite plausible, however, that pairs of organism species could have approximately equal indices, and the question of how different they could be and still have coexistence of the two (or more) presents itself. In this paper, the pursuit of this question and a compatible resolution is presented.

Blackwell, Charles↗