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NASA NTRS2011

Numerically Exact Computer Simulations of Light Scattering by Densely Packed, Random Particulate Media

Direct computer simulations of electromagnetic scattering by discrete random media have become an active area of research. In this progress review, we summarize and analyze our main results obtained by means of numerically exact computer solutions of the macroscopic Maxwell equations. We consider finite scattering volumes with size parameters in the range, composed of varying numbers of randomly distributed particles with different refractive indices. The main objective of our analysis is to examine whether all backscattering effects predicted by the low-density theory of coherent backscattering (CB) also take place in the case of densely packed media. Based on our extensive numerical data we arrive at the following conclusions: (i) all backscattering effects predicted by the asymptotic theory of CB can also take place in the case of densely packed media; (ii) in the case of very large particle packing density, scattering characteristics of discrete random media can exhibit behavior not predicted by the low-density theories of CB and radiative transfer; (iii) increasing the absorptivity of the constituent particles can either enhance or suppress typical manifestations of CB depending on the particle packing density and the real part of the refractive index. Our numerical data strongly suggest that spectacular backscattering effects identified in laboratory experiments and observed for a class of high-albedo Solar System objects are caused by CB.

Dlugach, Janna M.↗

NASA NTRS2002

A model for interphase chromosomes and evaluation of radiation-induced aberrations

We have developed a theoretical model for evaluating radiation-induced chromosomal exchanges by explicitly taking into account interphase (G(0)/G(1)) chromosome structure, nuclear organization of chromosomes, the production of double-strand breaks (DSBs), and the subsequent rejoinings in a faithful or unfaithful manner. Each of the 46 chromosomes for human lymphocytes (40 chromosomes for mouse lymphocytes) is modeled as a random polymer inside a spherical volume. The chromosome spheres are packed randomly inside a spherical nucleus with an allowed overlap controlled by a parameter Omega. The rejoining of DSBs is determined by a Monte Carlo procedure using a Gaussian proximity function with an interaction range parameter sigma. Values of Omega and sigma have been found which yield calculated results of interchromosomal aberration frequencies that agree with a wide range of experimental data. Our preferred solution is one with an interaction range of 0.5 microm coupled with a relatively small overlap parameter of 0.675 microm, which more or less confirms previous estimates. We have used our model with these parameter values and with resolution or detectability limits to calculate yields of translocations and dicentrics for human lymphocytes exposed to low-LET radiation that agree with experiments in the dose range 0.09 to 4 Gy. Five different experimental data sets have been compared with the theoretical results. Essentially all of the experimental data fall between theoretical curves corresponding to resolution limits of 1 Mbp and 20 Mbp, which may reflect the fact that different investigators use different limits for sensitivity or detectability. Translocation yields for mouse lymphocytes have also been calculated and are in good agreement with experimental data from 1 cGy to 10 cGy. There is also good agreement with recent data on complex aberrations. Our model is expected to be applicable to both low- and high-LET radiation, and we include a sample prediction of the yield of interchromosomal rejoining in the dose range 0.22 Gy to 2 Gy of 1000 MeV/nucleon iron particles. This dose range corresponds to average particle traversals per nucleus ranging from 1.0 to 9.12.

Non-NASA Center↗

NASA NTRS1998

Virtual and Experimental Visualization of Flows in Packed Beds of Spheres Simulating Porous Media Flows

A videotape presentation of flow in a packed bed of spheres is provided. The flow experiment consisted of three principal elements: (1) an oil tunnel 76.2 mm by 76.2 mm in cross section, (2) a packed bed of spheres in regular and irregular arrays, and (3) a flow characterization methodology, either (a) full flow field tracking (FFFT) or (b) computational fluid dynamic (CFD) simulation. The refraction indices of the oil and the test array of spheres were closely matched, and the flow was seeded with aluminum oxide particles. Planar laser light provided a two-dimensional projection of the flow field, and a traverse simulated a three-dimensional image of the entire flow field. Light focusing and reflection rendered the spheres black, permitting visualization of the planar circular interfaces in both the axial and transverse directions. Flows were observed near the wall-sphere interface and within the set of spheres. The CFD model required that a representative section of a packed bed be formed and gridded, enclosing and cutting six spheres so that symmetry conditions could be imposed at all cross-boundaries. Simulations had to be made with the flow direction at right angles to that used in the experiments, however, to take advantage of flow symmetry. Careful attention to detail was required for proper gridding. The flow field was three-dimensional and complex to describe, yet the most prominent finding was flow threads, as computed in the representative 'cube' of spheres with face symmetry and conclusively demonstrated experimentally herein. Random packing and bed voids tended to disrupt the laminar flow, creating vortices.

Hendricks, R. C.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Fundamental Studies on Two-Phase Gas-Liquid Flows Through Packed Beds in Microgravity

In the typical operation of a packed-bed reactor, gas and liquid flow simultaneously through a fixed bed of solid particles. Depending on the application, the particles can be of various shapes and sizes and provide for intimate contact and high rates of transport between the phases needed to sustain chemical or biological reactions. The packing may also serve as either a catalyst or as a support for growing biological material. NASA has flown two of these packed-bed systems in a microgravity environment with limited or no success. The goal of this research is to develop models (with scale-up capability) needed for the design of the physicochemical equipment to carry out these unit operations in microgravity. New insight will also lead to improvements in normal gravity operations. Our initial experiment was flown using an existing KC-135 two-phase flow rig with a modified test section. The test section is a clear polycarbonate rectangular column with a depth of 2.54 cm, a width of 5.08 cm, and 60 cm long. The column was randomly packed with spherical glass beads by slowly dropping the beads into the bed. Even though care was taken in handling the column after it was filled with packing, the alternating high and low gravity cycles with each parabola created a slightly tighter packed bed than is typically reported for this type. By the usual method of comparing the weight difference of a completely dry column versus a column filled with water, the void fraction was found to be .345 for both sizes of beads used. Five flush mounted differential pressure transducers are spaced at even intervals with the first location 4 cm from the inlet port and the subsequent pressure transducers spaced at 13 cm intervals along the column. Differential pressure data was acquired at 1000 Hz to adequately observe pulse formation and characteristics. Visual images of the flow were recorded using a high-speed SVHS system at 500 frames per second. Over 250 different test conditions were evaluated along with a companion set of tests in normal gravity. The flow rates, fluid properties and packing properties were selected to provide a range of several orders-of-magnitude for the important dimensionless parameters. Additional information is included in the original extended abstract.

Balakotaiah, Vemuri↗

NASA NTRS2002

Visualization of Flows in Packed Beds of Twisted Tapes

A videotape presentation of the flow field in a packed bed of 48 twisted tapes which can be simulated by very thin virtual cylinders has been assembled. The indices of refraction of the oil and the Lucite twisted tapes were closely matched, and the flow was seeded with magnesium oxide particles. Planar laser light projected the flow field in two dimensions both along and transverse to the flow axis. The flow field was three dimensional and complex to describe, yet the most prominent finding was flow threads. It appeared that axial flow spiraled along either within the confines of a virtual cylindrical boundary or within the exterior region, between the tangency points, of the virtual cylinders. Random packing and bed voids created vortices and disrupted the laminar flow but minimized the entrance effects. The flow-pressure drops in the packed bed fell below the Ergun model for porous-media flows. Single-twisted-tape results of Smithberg and Landis (1964) were used to guide the analysis. In appendix A the results of several investigators are scaled to the Ergun model. Further investigations including different geometric configurations, computational fluid dynamic (CFD) gridding, and analysis are required.

Hendricks, R. C.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Flow Visualizations in a Packed Bed of Twisted Tapes

Hendricks, R. C.↗

NASA NTRS2016

Tool for Generation of MAC/GMC Representative Unit Cell for CMC/PMC Analysis

This document describes a recently developed analysis tool that enhances the resident capabilities of the Micromechanics Analysis Code with the Generalized Method of Cells (MAC/GMC) 4.0. This tool is especially useful in analyzing ceramic matrix composites (CMCs), where higher fidelity with improved accuracy of local response is needed. The tool, however, can be used for analyzing polymer matrix composites (PMCs) as well. MAC/GMC 4.0 is a composite material and laminate analysis software developed at NASA Glenn Research Center. The software package has been built around the concept of the generalized method of cells (GMC). The computer code is developed with a user friendly framework, along with a library of local inelastic, damage, and failure models. Further, application of simulated thermomechanical loading, generation of output results, and selection of architectures to represent the composite material have been automated to increase the user friendliness, as well as to make it more robust in terms of input preparation and code execution. Finally, classical lamination theory has been implemented within the software, wherein GMC is used to model the composite material response of each ply. Thus, the full range of GMC composite material capabilities is available for analysis of arbitrary laminate configurations as well. The primary focus of the current effort is to provide a graphical user interface (GUI) capability that generates a number of different user-defined repeating unit cells (RUCs). In addition, the code has provisions for generation of a MAC/GMC-compatible input text file that can be merged with any MAC/GMC input file tailored to analyze composite materials. Although the primary intention was to address the three different constituents and phases that are usually present in CMCs-namely, fibers, matrix, and interphase-it can be easily modified to address two-phase polymer matrix composite (PMC) materials where an interphase is absent. Currently, the tool capability includes generation of RUCs for square packing, hexagonal packing, and random fiber packing as well as RUCs based on actual composite micrographs. All these options have the fibers modeled as having a circular cross-sectional area. In addition, a simplified version of RUC is provided where the fibers are treated as having a square cross section and are distributed randomly. This RUC facilitates a speedy analysis using the higher fidelity version of GMC known as HFGMC. The first four mentioned options above support uniform subcell discretization. The last one has variable subcell sizes due to the primary intention of keeping the RUC size to a minimum to gain the speed ups using the higher fidelity version of MAC. The code is implemented within the MATLAB (The Mathworks, Inc., Natick, MA) developmental framework; however, a standalone application that does not need a priori MATLAB installation is also created with the aid of the MATLAB compiler.

Materials Engineering↗

NASA NTRS2002

Homogenization Issues in the Combustion of Heterogeneous Solid Propellants

We examine random packs of discs or spheres, models for ammonium-perchlorate-in-binder propellants, and discuss their average properties. An analytical strategy is described for calculating the mean or effective heat conduction coefficient in terms of the heat conduction coefficients of the individual components, and the results are verified by comparison with those of direct numerical simulations (dns) for both 2-D (disc) and 3-D (sphere) packs across which a temperature difference is applied. Similarly, when the surface regression speed of each component is related to the surface temperature via a simple Arrhenius law, an analytical strategy is developed for calculating an effective Arrhenius law for the combination, and these results are verified using dns in which a uniform heat flux is applied to the pack surface, causing it to regress. These results are needed for homogenization strategies necessary for fully integrated 2-D or 3-D simulations of heterogeneous propellant combustion.

Chen, M.↗

NASA NTRS2002

The Three-Dimensional Combustion of Heterogeneous Propellants

A numerical framework is described which permits the calculation of the 3-D combustion field supported by a heterogeneous propellant, allowing for complete coupling between the condensed phase physics, the gas-phase physics, and the unsteady, uneven, regressing surface. A random packing algorithm is used to construct models of ammonium-perchlorate in hydroxyl-terminated-polybutadiene propellants which mimic experimental propellants designed by R. Miller, and these are numerically burnt. Mean burning rates are compared with experimental data for four packs, over a pressure range of 7-200atm.

Massa, L.↗

NASA NTRS2002

Diffusion NMR methods applied to xenon gas for materials study

We report initial NMR studies of (i) xenon gas diffusion in model heterogeneous porous media and (ii) continuous flow laser-polarized xenon gas. Both areas utilize the pulsed gradient spin-echo (PGSE) techniques in the gas phase, with the aim of obtaining more sophisticated information than just translational self-diffusion coefficients--a brief overview of this area is provided in the Introduction. The heterogeneous or multiple-length scale model porous media consisted of random packs of mixed glass beads of two different sizes. We focus on observing the approach of the time-dependent gas diffusion coefficient, D(t) (an indicator of mean squared displacement), to the long-time asymptote, with the aim of understanding the long-length scale structural information that may be derived from a heterogeneous porous system. We find that D(t) of imbibed xenon gas at short diffusion times is similar for the mixed bead pack and a pack of the smaller sized beads alone, hence reflecting the pore surface area to volume ratio of the smaller bead sample. The approach of D(t) to the long-time limit follows that of a pack of the larger sized beads alone, although the limiting D(t) for the mixed bead pack is lower, reflecting the lower porosity of the sample compared to that of a pack of mono-sized glass beads. The Pade approximation is used to interpolate D(t) data between the short- and long-time limits. Initial studies of continuous flow laser-polarized xenon gas demonstrate velocity-sensitive imaging of much higher flows than can generally be obtained with liquids (20-200 mm s-1). Gas velocity imaging is, however, found to be limited to a resolution of about 1 mm s-1 owing to the high diffusivity of gases compared with liquids. We also present the first gas-phase NMR scattering, or diffusive-diffraction, data, namely flow-enhanced structural features in the echo attenuation data from laser-polarized xenon flowing through a 2 mm glass bead pack. c2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

NASA Discipline Life Sciences Technologies↗

NASA NTRS2002

The narrow pulse approximation and long length scale determination in xenon gas diffusion NMR studies of model porous media

We report a systematic study of xenon gas diffusion NMR in simple model porous media, random packs of mono-sized glass beads, and focus on three specific areas peculiar to gas-phase diffusion. These topics are: (i) diffusion of spins on the order of the pore dimensions during the application of the diffusion encoding gradient pulses in a PGSE experiment (breakdown of the narrow pulse approximation and imperfect background gradient cancellation), (ii) the ability to derive long length scale structural information, and (iii) effects of finite sample size. We find that the time-dependent diffusion coefficient, D(t), of the imbibed xenon gas at short diffusion times in small beads is significantly affected by the gas pressure. In particular, as expected, we find smaller deviations between measured D(t) and theoretical predictions as the gas pressure is increased, resulting from reduced diffusion during the application of the gradient pulse. The deviations are then completely removed when water D(t) is observed in the same samples. The use of gas also allows us to probe D(t) over a wide range of length scales and observe the long time asymptotic limit which is proportional to the inverse tortuosity of the sample, as well as the diffusion distance where this limit takes effect (approximately 1-1.5 bead diameters). The Pade approximation can be used as a reference for expected xenon D(t) data between the short and the long time limits, allowing us to explore deviations from the expected behavior at intermediate times as a result of finite sample size effects. Finally, the application of the Pade interpolation between the long and the short time asymptotic limits yields a fitted length scale (the Pade length), which is found to be approximately 0.13b for all bead packs, where b is the bead diameter. c. 2002 Elsevier Sciences (USA).

NASA Discipline Life Sciences Technologies↗

NASA NTRS1999

Probing porous media with gas diffusion NMR

We show that gas diffusion nuclear magnetic resonance (GD-NMR) provides a powerful technique for probing the structure of porous media. In random packs of glass beads, using both laser-polarized and thermally polarized xenon gas, we find that GD-NMR can accurately measure the pore space surface-area-to-volume ratio, S/V rho, and the tortuosity, alpha (the latter quantity being directly related to the system's transport properties). We also show that GD-NMR provides a good measure of the tortuosity of sandstone and complex carbonate rocks.

NASA Discipline Environmental Health↗

NASA NTRS1998

Pulsed-field-gradient measurements of time-dependent gas diffusion

Pulsed-field-gradient NMR techniques are demonstrated for measurements of time-dependent gas diffusion. The standard PGSE technique and variants, applied to a free gas mixture of thermally polarized xenon and O2, are found to provide a reproducible measure of the xenon diffusion coefficient (5.71 x 10(-6) m2 s-1 for 1 atm of pure xenon), in excellent agreement with previous, non-NMR measurements. The utility of pulsed-field-gradient NMR techniques is demonstrated by the first measurement of time-dependent (i.e., restricted) gas diffusion inside a porous medium (a random pack of glass beads), with results that agree well with theory. Two modified NMR pulse sequences derived from the PGSE technique (named the Pulsed Gradient Echo, or PGE, and the Pulsed Gradient Multiple Spin Echo, or PGMSE) are also applied to measurements of time dependent diffusion of laser polarized xenon gas, with results in good agreement with previous measurements on thermally polarized gas. The PGMSE technique is found to be superior to the PGE method, and to standard PGSE techniques and variants, for efficiently measuring laser polarized noble gas diffusion over a wide range of diffusion times. Copyright 1998 Academic Press.

NASA Discipline Environmental Health↗

NASA NTRS2004

Lithium-Ion Verification Test Program

In order to assess the capabilities of current aerospace lithium-ion cells to perform long-term NASA missions, low-earth-orbits (LEO) testing to evaluate long-term cycle life was initiated. A flexible program was developed at NASA Glenn Research Center to enable assessment of technology developments as they occur as well as provide information about different cell vendors and cell designs. Following extensive characterization testing, cells are tested using LEO charge and discharge profiles under ten different combinations of test conditions that were statistically chosen to determine the effects of depth-of-discharge, temperature, and end-of-charge voltage on LEO cycle life. Four cells from each vendor are tested at each specific combination of conditions. Conditions included in the test matrix are depth-of-discharges of 20%, 30, 35%, and 40%; temperatures of 20, 30, and 40 C; and end-of-charge voltages of 3.85 V, 3.95 V, and 4.05 V. Cells are randomly assigned to packs and packs are randomly assigned to test conditions. The capacity of the cells to 3.0 V at the conditions of the test is being periodically measured. The results of this testing will be used to model cell performance and degradation as a function of test operating conditions. Cells are being evaluated in 4-cell series strings with charge voltage limits being applied to individual cells by charge control units designed and built at NASA Glenn Research Center. Testing is being performed at the Naval Surface Warfare Center/Crane Division in Crane, IN. Testing was initiated in September 2004 with 40 Ah cells from Saft and 30 Ah cells from Lithion. The test program is being expanded with the addition of cells from MSA and the addition of small cell modules is being considered. Preliminary results showing voltage, temperature, usable capacity per unit mass, and voltage dispersion as their changes over time for the cells at 20 C is presented.

McKissock, Barbara↗

NASA NTRS2005

Modeling for Ultrasonic Health Monitoring of Foams with Embedded Sensors

In this report analytical and numerical methods are proposed to estimate the effective elastic properties of regular and random open-cell foams. The methods are based on the principle of minimum energy and on structural beam models. The analytical solutions are obtained using symbolic processing software. The microstructure of the random foam is simulated using Voronoi tessellation together with a rate-dependent random close-packing algorithm. The statistics of the geometrical properties of random foams corresponding to different packing fractions have been studied. The effects of the packing fraction on elastic properties of the foams have been investigated by decomposing the compliance into bending and axial compliance components. It is shown that the bending compliance increases and the axial compliance decreases when the packing fraction increases. Keywords: Foam; Elastic properties; Finite element; Randomness

Wang, L.↗

NASA NTRS1985

Processing of laser formed SiC powder

Superior SiC characteristics can be achieved through the use of ideal constituent powders and careful post-synthesis processing steps. High purity SiC powders of approx. 1000 A uniform diameter, nonagglomerated and spherical were produced. This required major revision of the particle formation and growth model from one based on classical nucleation and growth to one based on collision and coalescence of Si particles followed by their carburization. Dispersions based on pure organic solvents as well as steric stabilization were investigated. Although stable dispersions were formed by both, subsequent part fabrication emphasized the pure solvents since fewer problems with drying and residuals of the high purity particles were anticipated. Test parts were made by the colloidal pressing technique; both liquid filtration and consolidation (rearrangement) stages were modeled. Green densities corresponding to a random close packed structure (approx. 63%) were achieved; this highly perfect structure has a high, uniform coordination number (greater than 11) approaching the quality of an ordered structure without introducing domain boundary effects. After drying, parts were densified at temperatures ranging from 1800 to 2100 C. Optimum densification temperatures will probably be in the 1900 to 2000 C range based on these preliminary results which showed that 2050 C samples had experienced substantial grain growth. Although overfired, the 2050 C samples exhibited excellent mechanical properties. Biaxial tensile strengths up to 714 MPa and Vickers hardness values of 2430 kg/sq mm 2 were both more typical of hot pressed than sintered SiC. Both result from the absence of large defects and the confinement of residual porosity (less than 2.5%) to small diameter, uniformly distributed pores.

Haggerty, J. S.↗

NASA NTRS1987

Processing of laser formed SiC powder

Processing research was undertaken to demonstrate that superior SiC characteristics could be achieved through the use of ideal constituent powders and careful post-synthesis processing steps. Initial research developed the means to produce approximately 1000 A uniform diameter, nonagglomerated, spherical, high purity SiC powders. Accomplishing this goal required major revision of the particle formation and growth model from one based on classical nucleation and growth to one based on collision and coalescence of Si particles followed by their carburization. Dispersions based on pure organic solvents as well as steric stabilization were investigated. Test parts were made by the colloidal pressing technique; both liquid filtration and consolidation (rearrangement) stages were modeled. Green densities corresponding to a random close packed structure were achieved. After drying, parts were densified at temperatures ranging from 1800 to 2100 C. This research program accomplished all of its major objectives. Superior microstructures and properties were attained by using powders having ideal characteristics and special post-synthesis processing procedures.

Haggerty, J. S.↗

NASA NTRS1996

Dynamics of Disorder-Order Transitions in Hard Sphere Colloidal Dispersions in micro-g

We performed a series of experiments on 0.518 millimeter PMMA spheres suspended in an index matching mixture of decalin and tetralin the microgravity environment provided by the Shuttle Columbia on mission STS-73. The samples ranged in concentration from 0.49 to 0.62. volume fraction (phi) of spheres, which covers the range in which liquid, coexistence, solid and glass phases are expected from Earth bound experiments. Light scattering was used to probe the static structure, and the particle dynamics. Digital and 35 mm photos provided information on the morphology of the crystals. In general, the crystallites grew considerably larger (roughly an order of magnitude larger) than the same samples with identical treatment in 1 g. The dynamic light scattering shows the typical short time diffusion and long time caging effects found in 1 g. The surprises that were encountered in microgravity include the preponderance of random hexagonal close packed (RHCP) structures and the complete absence of the expected face centered cubic (FCC) structure, existence of large dendritic crystals floating in the coexistence samples (where liquid and solid phases coexist) and the rapid crystallization of samples which exist only in glass phase under the influence of one g. These results suggest that colloidal crystal growth is profoundly effected by gravity in yet unrecognized ways. We suspect that the RCHP structure is related to the nonequilibrium growth that is evident from the presence of dendrites. An analysis of the dendritic growth instabilities is presented within the framework of the Ackerson-Schatzel equation.

Zhu, J. X.↗