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Results for “reversible self-assembly”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 19 records

Reversible self-assembly of small molecules for recyclable solid-state battery electrolytes

Performance often overshadows recyclability in contemporary battery designs, leading to sustainability challenges. Preemptive strategies integrating recyclable chemistry from the outset are thus increasingly critical for addressing the complexities in conventional recycling. Here we harness bio-inspired molecular self-assembly to create inherently recyclable battery materials. We use aramid amphiphiles that self-assemble in water through strong, collective hydrogen bonding and π–π stacking, forming air-stable, high-aspect-ratio nanoribbons with gigapascal-level stiffness. When processed into bulk solid-state electrolytes, these nanoribbons retain their ordered molecular arrangement and exhibit total conductivities of 1.6 × 10 −4 S cm −1 at 50 °C, Young’s moduli of 70 MPa and toughness values of 1 MJ m −3 , despite being stabilized solely by reversible non-covalent bonds. We further demonstrate clean separation of battery components by exposing used cells to an organic solvent, which disrupts the non-covalent cohesion and reverts all battery components to their original forms. Furthermore, this study underscores the potential of molecular self-assembly for specialized recyclable designs in energy storage applications.

Batteries↗

Reversible Physical Gelation of Thermotropic Liquid Crystals Driven by Nanoplate Self-Assembly

Physically gelled soft materials, driven by the self-assembly of low-molecular-mass gelators (LMGs), have emerged as a platform for designing advanced gels that exhibit reversible gelation and property tunability. Liquid crystal (LC) gels are of great interest due to their supramolecular orderings as gel hosts and their enhanced electro-optical properties. In this study, we demonstrate the physical gelation of a nematic LC driven by nanoplate self-assembly, expanding the concept of gelators from small molecules to nanoparticles. These nanoplates are functionalized with promesogenic ligands and form a fibrillar network in LCs with face-to-face interplate stacking, resembling LMGs. The critical gelation volume fraction in the tilt test is only 0.14 v %, comparable to values reported for LMGs. Rheological analyses confirm viscoelastic properties characteristic of gelation. In situ small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) characterizes the formation of nanoplate networks in the LC with decreasing temperature, wherein LC mesogens become trapped in pores. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations reveal that the interaction between ligand-coated nanoplates and LC-forming mesogens induces a multidomain LC structure, increasing friction between LC domains and stabilizing the gel. This study establishes direct relationships among molecular interactions, nanostructures, and mechanical properties in physically gelled LCs. In conclusion, the findings inspire the future gelator design of both LMGs and nanoplates, with potential applicability in bioscaffold engineering and liquid crystalline nanocomposites.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

Aggregation of One–Dimensional Wires: The Case of Long Oligoynes

We show an unexpected aggregation phenomenon of a long oligoyne (Py[16]) with 16 contiguous triple bonds and endcapped with bulky 3,5-bi(3,5-bis-tert-butylphenyl)pyridine groups. Aggregation of 1D π-conjugated oligoyne chains is rare given the minimal π–π intermolecular interactions as well as its flexibility that works against self-assembly. In dilute solutions, the reversible aggregation of Py[16] initiates at low temperature in the range of 140–180 K, and is not observed for shorter oligoynes in this series. Cryogenic UV/Vis electronic absorption spectra and vibrational Raman spectra with different laser wavelength lines tuning from in-resonance to off-resonance conditions have been used to extract the vibrational features characterizing the monomer and aggregate species. Theoretical calculations complement the spectroscopic findings.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

Investigation of design principles for metal-binding and conductive protein assemblies

Throughout the lifetime of this initiative, including renewals, we focused on understanding the fundamental principles of protein-protein interface design that enable predictable and modular spatial and kinetic control of multi-component protein self-assembly in 1D, 2D, and 3D, including the interface with inorganic materials, small molecules, and metal ions. We designed individual protein components that bind specific metal ions, including REEs and transport ions across lipid membranes. We created helical 1D filaments of repeating units with programmed periodicity, pitch, and multi-component environmentally responsive self-assembling protein fibers. We showed that these filaments reversibly assemble and disassemble under specific pH conditions and created end-specific caps that independently tune the balance of attachment and detachment rates at each terminus of the filament. Using similar filaments, we succeeded in binding arrays of heme and chlorophyll molecules and assembling patterned helical coatings around carbon nanotubes in efforts to create de novo conductive nanowires. By arraying REE binding sites in a large circular tandem array with a repeat protein-based cyclic oligomer, we created a molecular scaffold for superradiance and paramagnetic quantum sensing. We created a range of one-component and two-component self-assembling 2D arrays and showed that when designed to engage cell receptors, these arrays can control cell behavior from outside the cell signal to inside the cell. We designed helical repeat proteins with variable lengths displaying charged residues in a pattern matched to the cation lattice of mica. achieved a range of ordered states with an epitaxial match to the underlying crystal lattice. We further applied the learned principles of protein-induced biomineralization to design proteins with an interface lattice matching CaCO 3 and guide the formation of specific crystal forms of CaCO 3 from solution, a significant advance toward the global need to manage carbon. In all cases of mineral lattice matching and biomineralization, we followed assembly using molecularly resolved in situ AFM imaging and extracted information about assembly pathways and energetics, applying deep learning to quantify the dynamics of protein self-organization. We developed techniques for using dynamic metal-dependent interfaces on protein nanopores for discriminatively sensing dilute REEs in solution and demonstrated the use of strong metal-binding interfaces to drive nanocage disassembly for conditional nanocompartmentalization applications. This grant supported 11 people, including Asim Bera, Evans Brackenbrough, Andrew Borst, Nikita Hanikel, Timothy Huddy, Emily Joyce, Alex Young-Seug Kang, Ryan Kibler, Joshua Morris Lubner, Harley Pyles, and Shuai Zhang. The research effort culminated in the production of published papers and theses. Electronic Thesis/Dissertation are distributed by ProQuest/UMI Dissertation Publishing and made available on an open access basis through UW Libraries ResearchWorks Service.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

Dynamic Interfacial Design in Adaptive Hybrid Materials Enables Reversible and Tunable Mechano-Optic Smart Responses

Next-generation polymeric materials are shifting toward adaptive and interactive behaviors of living systems; however, designing materials that can reversibly modulate optical properties under mechanical deformation while maintaining mechanical robustness remains a key challenge. Here, we report a mechanically robust vitrimer-based adaptive hybrid material (AHM) that exhibits a stretch-induced reversible transparency-to-opacity transition, enabled by the integration of dynamic interactions at the polymer–silica nanoparticle interface and controlled nanoparticle self-assembly. The AHM combines boronic ester–functionalized polystyrene-b-poly(ethylene-co-butylene)-b-polystyrene (S-Bpin) with diol-functionalized silica nanoparticles (diol-SiNPs) to form a hybrid network hosting both dynamic boronic ester and hydrogen-bonding interactions. These reversible linkages facilitate controlled nanoparticle self-assembly and enable strain-induced nanoparticle alignment/aggregation. Upon stretching, SiNP-rich domains align and aggregate within the polymer matrix, while local modulus mismatch between stiff aggregated SiNP/borylated-styrene-rich regions and the softer elastomeric midblock induces surface microwrinkle formation. These internal aggregates and surface wrinkles cooperatively enhance light scattering, producing the opaque state under strain. Furthermore, the tailored AHM exhibits high toughness, thermomechanical stability, reprocessability, and programmable shape-memory behavior. This work presents a dynamic interfacial design strategy for mechanically robust, optically reconfigurable, and reusable soft materials for adaptive optics, smart windows, sensing, soft robotics, and circular smart-material platforms.

adaptive hybrid materials↗

Reversible Electron-Beam Patterning of Colloidal Nanoparticles at Fluid Interfaces

The directed self-assembly of colloidal nanoparticles (NPs) using external fields guides the formation of sophisticated hierarchical materials but becomes less effective with decreasing particle size. As an alternative, electron-beam-driven assembly offers a potential avenue for targeted nanoscale manipulation, yet remains poorly controlled due to the variety and complexity of beam interaction mechanisms. Here, we investigate the beam–particle interaction of silica NPs pinned to the fluid–vacuum interface of ionic liquid droplets. In these experiments, scanning electron microscopy of the droplet surface resolves NP trajectories over space and time while simultaneously driving their reorganization. With this platform, we demonstrate the ability to direct particle transport and create transient, reversible colloidal patterns on the droplet surface. By tuning the beam voltage, we achieve precise control over both the strength and sign of the beam–particle interaction, with low voltages repelling particles and high voltages attracting them. This response stems from the formation of well-defined solvent flow fields generated from trace radiolysis of the ionic liquid, as determined through statistical analysis of single-particle trajectories under varying solvent composition. Altogether, electron-beam-guided assembly introduces a versatile strategy for nanoscale colloidal manipulation, offering new possibilities for the design of dynamic, reconfigurable systems with applications in adaptive photonics and catalysis.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

Atomic Alignment in PbS Nanocrystal Superlattices with Compact Inorganic Ligands via Reversible Oriented Attachment of Nanocrystals

Nanocrystals (NCs) serve as versatile building blocks for the creation of functional materials with NC self-assembly offering opportunities to enable novel material properties. Here, in this work, we demonstrate that PbS NCs functionalized with strongly negatively charged metal chalcogenide complex (MCC) ligands, such as Sn 2 S 6 4– and AsS 4 3– , can self-assemble into all-inorganic superlattices with both long-range superlattice translational and atomic-lattice orientational order. Structural characterizations reveal that the NCs adopt an unexpected edge-to-edge alignment, and numerical simulation clarifies that orientational order is thermodynamically stabilized by many-body ion correlations originating from the dense electrolyte. Furthermore, we show that the superlattices of Sn 2 S 6 4– -functionalized PbS NCs can be fully disassembled back into the colloidal state, which is highly unusual for orientationally attached superlattices with atomic-lattice alignment. The reversible oriented attachment of NCs, enabling their dynamic assembly and disassembly into effectively single-crystalline superstructures, offers a pathway toward designing reconfigurable materials with adaptive and controllable electronic and optoelectronic properties.

Landau-Ginzburg theory↗

Abbr. Final report: Self-assembled molecular containers as artificial water channels: towards biomimetic desalination membranes

Global water scarcity demands advances in desalination technologies that can deliver more fresh water with less energy. Current reverse osmosis membranes are fundamentally limited by a trade-off between how much water they can pass and how well they block salts. To address this challenge, we developed a bottom-up strategy to design and test artificial water channels that mimic the efficiency of biological proteins but are built from robust synthetic molecules. Over two years, we synthesized and evaluated more than twenty molecular channel candidates, including supramolecular macrocycles and nanographene pores with atomically precise structures. We showed that small chemical modifications allow direct control over pore size and chemistry, which in turn govern water permeability and salt rejection. In collaboration with university partners, we reported the first experimental demonstration of water transport through a nanographene pore, bridging a long-standing gap between simulation and experiment. Several of the artificial channels we developed achieved water–salt selectivity beyond conventional polymer membranes, highlighting their potential for next-generation desalination and precision separations.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

Phase segregation of a composite air electrode unlocks the high performance of reversible protonic ceramic electrochemical cells

One breakthrough in developing highly efficient air electrodes for reversible protonic ceramic electrochemical cells (R-PCECs) is optimizing the sluggish oxygen reduction and water oxidation reactions. Here, we present a novel composite material with a nominal formula of high-entropy Ce 0.2 Ba 0.2 Sr 0.2 La 0.2 Ca 0.2 CoO 3–δ (CBSLCC) that spontaneously self-assembles to three-phase electrocatalysts composed of deficient Ce 0.2–y Ba 0.2 Sr 0.2–x La 0.2–x Ca 0.2 CoO 3–δ (CD-CBSLCC), CeO 2 , and La 0.5 Sr 0.5 CoO 3–δ (LSC). Mechanistic studies corroborate that oxygen reduction may occur on entire air electrode surfaces, followed by water formation preferentially at or near CD-CBSLCC. The CeO 2 phase could provide or consume protons to facilitate the oxygen evolution/reduction kinetics in R-PCECs. The developed electrodes demonstrate a record-high electrochemical performance in dual modes of fuel cells and electrolysis cells, delivering a peak power density of 1.66 W cm –2 at 600 °C and a current density of –1.76 A cm –2 at 1.3 V and 600 °C. Finally, excellent operational stabilities of the fuel cell (200 h at 600 °C), electrolysis cell (200 h at 600 °C), and reversible cycling (548 h at 550 °C) provide a promising and reliable step towards realizing the commercialization of R-PCECs.

30 DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSION↗

Shape-anisotropy inverses the behavior of emergent vortices in active chiral fluids

Active colloidal fluids exhibit spontaneous emergence of correlated states, characterized by complex collective dynamics and self-organization. In geometrically confined systems, activity modulations trigger robust polar state reversals of a macroscopic vortex formed by colloidal rollers. Here, we reveal that the shape anisotropy of dielectric rollers transforms the system into a chiral active fluid comprised of rollers of arbitrary handedness. The chiral rollers self-assemble into multiple freestanding vortices with a spontaneously selected sense of rotation. We demonstrate that upon reactivation of the system after a complete cessation of activity beyond all relevant timescales, the vortices simultaneously restore their previous chiral states in striking contrast to the chiral state reversals demonstrated by spherical rollers. The analysis reveals that shape-anisotropy modifies the collective state memory of the ensemble. The findings provide insights into the emergence of complex collective behavior in chiral colloidal fluids governed by an interplay between shape anisotropy, chiral motion, and activity modulations.

Colloids↗

Reconfigurable structural color by reversible switching of colloidal discoid liquid crystal alignment

Combining the effects of alternating-current (AC) electric fields and sedimentation reconfigures colloidal discoids between planar and homeotropic orientational alignments, thereby controlling the material’s structural color. Here, we self-assemble micrometer-size polystyrene discoids in an isopropanol-water mixture. After sedimentation, the discoids adopt a homeotropic alignment, with the minor axis perpendicular to the substrate. Adding an AC electric field (1 kHz) of ≥0.50 V switches the discoids to planar alignment—with the minor axis parallel to the substrate—within ∼100 s. Removing the field switches them back to homeotropic alignment within ∼300 s. Kinetic modeling of the field-induced torques yields good agreement with these measurements. The peak wavelength and intensity of the crystal’s diffraction response shift significantly upon reconfiguration; scattering simulation predicts these shifts. The reconfiguration is maintained for at least 10 cycles. This method is a simple, scalable avenue to reconfigure the optical properties of colloidal crystals produced from simple dielectric spheroids.

colloidal crystals↗

Growth of Nanocrystal Superlattices from Liquid Crystals

The growth of superlattices (SLs) made from self-assembled nanocrystals (NCs) is a powerful method for creating new materials and gaining insight into fundamental molecular dynamics. Previous explorations of NCSL syntheses have mostly compared them to crystallization. However, NCSL synthesis has not broadly shown cooling crystallization from saturated solutions as a reversible crystallization–dissolution process. We demonstrate the reversible growth of NCSLs by dispersing NCs in liquid crystal (LC) “smart solvents,” and harnessing the transitions between the isotropic and nematic phases of the LCs. The growth mode and morphology can be tuned. Furthernore, this process is a model platform for studying crystallization and demonstrates great potential in manufacturing NCSLs as colloidal crystals through liquid-phase epitaxy or colloidal synthesis.

77 NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY↗

Enhancing surface activity and durability in triple conducting electrode for protonic ceramic electrochemical cells

With the material system operating at lower temperatures, protonic ceramic electrochemical cells (PCECs) can offer high energy efficiency and reliable performance for both power generation and hydrogen production, making them a promising technology for reversible energy cycling. However, PCEC faces technical challenges, particularly regarding electrode activity and durability under high current density operations. To address these challenges, we introduce a nano-architecture oxygen electrode characterized by high porosity and triple conductivity, designed to enhance catalytic activity and interfacial stability through a self-assembly approach, while maintaining scalability. Electrochemical cells incorporating this advanced electrode demonstrate robust performance, achieving a peak power density of 1.50 W cm −2 at 600 °C in fuel cell mode and a current density of 5.04 A cm −2 at 1.60 V in electrolysis mode, with enhanced stability on transient operations and thermal cycles. The underlying mechanisms are closely related to the improved surface activity and mass transfer due to the dual features of the electrode structure. Additionally, the enhanced interfacial bonding between the oxygen electrode and electrolyte contributes to increased durability and thermomechanical integrity. This study underscores the critical importance of optimizing electrode microstructure to achieve a balance between surface activity and durability.

Protonic Ceramic Electrochemical Cells↗

Exploring Microphase Separation in Semi-Fluorinated Diblock Copolymers: A Combined Experimental and Modeling Investigation

We report the combined experimental and theoretical study of the bulk self-assembly behavior of polystyrene-blockpoly( 2,3,4,5,6-pentafluorostyrene) diblock copolymers. These block copolymers were designed to create highly antagonistic blocks (with a high Flory−Huggins interaction parameter, χ) with minimum disruption to the molecular construct (i.e., only replacing five hydrogen atoms with five fluorine atoms). A large library of diblock copolymers (41 samples) was synthesized by reversible addition− fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization to map out a major portion of the phase space. All block copolymers exhibited narrow molecular weight distributions with dispersity (D) values between 1.07 and 1.32, and subsequent thermal annealing revealed phase separation into well-defined nanoscale morphologies depending on their molecular composition, as determined from small-angle X-ray scattering and transmission electron microscopy analyses, with an experimental phase diagram being constructed. The χ value at 25 °C for this block copolymer was estimated to be 0.2 using strong segregation theory, based on trends in phase-separated domain spacing and interfacial width. When applying theoretical approaches, the majority of the domain spacing data trends were captured by a coil−coil diblock copolymer model; however, a better fit to the data for samples with shorter fluorinated blocks was obtained with a rod−coil model, indicating that the chains in these fluorinated blocks likely have a higher inherent stiffness and were thus rod-like. This observation demonstrates that, due to the very high value of χ, a transition from coil−coil to rod−coil behavior can be obtained purely by reducing the length of the stiffer of the two blocks and without varying temperature or the chemical composition of the polymers. Here, this work showcases the presence of strong microphase separation within AB diblock copolymers despite the relatively similar chemical composition of the constituent “A” and “B” units, with a clear transition from rod−coil to coil−coil segregation behavior.

RAFT polymerization↗

Non-Isochronal Behavior of Charge Transport at Liquid–Liquid and Liquid–Glass Transition in Aprotic Ionic Liquids

A reversible, first-order transition separating two liquid phases of a single-component material is a fascinating yet poorly understood phenomenon. Here, we investigate the liquid–liquid transition (LLT) ability of two tetraalkylphosphonium ionic liquids (ILs), [P 666,14 ]Cl and [P 666,14 ][1,2,4-triazolide], using differential scanning calorimetry and dielectric spectroscopy. The latter technique also allowed us to study the LLT at elevated pressure. We found that cooling below 205 K transforms [P 666,14 ]Cl and [P 666,14 ][Trz] from one liquid state (liquid 1) to another (the self-assembled liquid 2), while the latter facilitates the charge transport decoupled from structural dynamics. In contrast to temperature, pressure was found to play an essential role in the self-organization of a liquid 2 phase, resulting in different time scales of charge transport for rapidly and slowly compressed samples. Furthermore, τ σ (P LL ) was found to be much shorter than τ σ (T LL , P=atm), which constitutes the first example of non-isochronal behavior of charge transport at LLT. In turn, dielectric studies through the liquid–glass transition revealed the non-monotonic behavior of τ σ at elevated pressure for [P 666,14 ]Cl, while for [P 666,14 ][Trz] τ σ (P g ) was almost constant. These results highlight the diversity of liquid–liquid transition features within the class of phosphonium ionic liquids.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

Directed Self-Assembly of the Organic Semiconductor C8-BTBT-C8 in Anodic Aluminum Oxide Nanopores

Controlling the self-assembly of organic semiconductors at the nanoscale is critical for advancing high-performance electronic and photonic devices, yet it remains challenging due to their intrinsic anisotropic crystallization and sensitivity to processing conditions. Here, in this study, we demonstrate that cylindrical nanoconfinement within anodic aluminum oxide membranes provides a versatile platform to precisely tune the molecular orientation and phase behavior of the prototypical organic semiconductor 2,7-dioctyl[1]benzothieno[3,2-b][1]benzothiophene (C8-BTBT-C8). Combining temperature-dependent high-resolution synchrotron X-ray scattering with optical birefringence measurements, we uncover that confinement geometries (pore diameters 25–180 nm) and surface chemistry govern the emergence of distinct smectic A textures, featuring molecular layers either parallel or perpendicular to the pore axis. The competition between axial and radial smectic layering is modulated by pore size, surface hydrophilicity, and thermal history, enabling reversible control over domain orientations and transitions between liquid crystalline and crystalline states. Notably, nanoconfinement stabilizes the smectic phase over an expanded temperature range compared to bulk, while inducing complex multidomain configurations owing to geometric constraints and anchoring conditions. Our results elucidate fundamental mechanisms by which anisotropic nanoscale confinement directs the self-organization of highly conjugated organic molecules, with implications for optimizing directional charge transport and anisotropic optical responses in organic–inorganic hybrid nanoarchitectures. This study establishes nanoconfinement as a powerful strategy to engineer morphology and functional properties in organic semiconducting materials with nanoscale precision.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

Buried Interfaces in Organic Photocathodes for H 2 Evolution: Fermi-Level Pinning and Recombination

Herein, we demonstrate how Fermi-level pinning at buried contacts impacts solar fuel generation in all-polymer photocathodes by systematically comparing the effects of work function, hydroxyl coverage, and hydrogen evolution using chemically modified indium tin oxide (ITO) supports. Photovoltages and net photocathode performance are improved when the ITO is passivated using phosphonic acids, independent of work function, suggesting that the passivation reduces Fermi-level pinning at the buried interface arising from blended heterojunction interactions with surface metal hydroxyls. Transient photovoltage decay reveals differences in recombination mechanisms, supported by light intensity-dependent measurements. Briefly, nonpassivated, hydrophilic contacts exhibit trap-assisted recombination, while passivated, hydrophobic contacts follow bimolecular recombination. We then investigate changes in electroactivity of hole-transfer processes as a function of scan rate and repetitive cycling using a diffusion-controlled molecular redox probe, analogous to a hole-only device achieved via the electrolyte. The nonpassivated buried contacts exhibit higher overpotentials for oxidation, indicative of hole injection/extraction barriers. We observe irreversible electron transfer via the hole-transport level of the blended heterojunction and a strong cycle dependence, consistent with changes in the hole trap state density. Passivation results in more reversible redox behaviors, consistent with more Ohmic-like contacts. Collectively, these results provide context toward the realization of durable organic photoelectrodes with optimized photovoltages and net solar-to-hydrogen conversion efficiencies via fundamental understanding of the rates of carrier generation, recombination, and transport in high-dielectric aqueous environments and opportunities to characterize buried interfaces under device-relevant electric fields.

buried interfaces↗

High‐Rate Polymeric Redox in MXene‐Based Superlattice‐Like Heterostructure for Ammonium Ion Storage

Abstract Achieving both high redox activity and rapid ion transport is a critical and pervasive challenge in electrochemical energy storage applications. This challenge is significantly magnified when using large‐sized charge carriers, such as the sustainable ammonium ion (NH 4 + ). A self‐assembled MXene/n‐type conjugated polyelectrolyte (CPE) superlattice‐like heterostructure that enables redox‐active, fast, and reversible ammonium storage is reported. The superlattice‐like structure persists as the CPE:MXene ratio increases, accompanied by a linear increase in the interlayer spacing of MXene flakes and a greater overlap of CPEs. Concurrently, the redox activity per unit of CPE unexpectedly intensifies, a phenomenon that can be explained by the enhanced de‐solvation of ammonium due to the increased volume of 3 Å‐sized pores, as indicated by molecular dynamic simulations. At the maximum CPE mass loading (MXene:CPE ratio = 2:1), the heterostructure demonstrates the strongest polymeric redox activity with a high ammonium storage capacity of 126.1 C g −1 and a superior rate capability at 10 A g −1 . This work unveils an effective strategy for designing tunable superlattice‐like heterostructures to enhance redox activity and achieve rapid charge transfer for ions beyond lithium.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗