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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 19 records
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Virtual texture analysis to understand microstructure effects on deformation twinning and detwinning behavior in BCC metals

Understanding and predicting deformation twinning contributions to plastic deformation in BCC metals has been a long-standing challenge due to the interplay with dislocation slip and non-Schmid effects that render an asymmetry under tension and compression. This paper uses molecular dynamics simulations to understand the effect of unloading and grain orientation on deformation twinning in a nanocrystalline Fe (nc-Fe) system as a model BCC metal. The nc-Fe system is loaded under uniaxial stress tension and compression to understand the effect of grain orientation (Schmid effects) on deformation twinning behavior and the tension/compression asymmetry (non-Schmid effects). A new virtual texture analysis “VirTex” tool is used to understand the role of grain orientation on the nucleation of twins and their contributions to the observed stress–strain response. For certain grain orientations, the twinnability is observed to be different in tension and compression. In addition, the flow stress accommodation from twins in certain grains is observed to be different in tension and compression and different from that for the grains. Subsequent unloading leads to detwinning in the deformed microstructures, where the extent of detwinning depends on the strain from which the system is unloaded and on the morphology of the twin. Lastly, the simulations are carried out to analyze the role of the Schmid factor on the twinnability and asymmetry in tension and compression.

Kannan, Aadhithyan [University of Connecticut, Sto↗
DOE OSTI2025

Texture Analysis of Inconel 718 with Different Modes During Single-Track Laser Surface Re-Melting

An in-depth understanding of the texture formation in melt pools allows for the modification of the surface layer microstructure and corresponding material properties, providing an opportunity to integrate laser surface re-melting into metal additive manufacturing. This study investigates crystallographic texture formation at different cooling rates in single melting tracks on the Inconel 718 (IN718) plate produced by laser surface re-melting. The cooling rate varies from 2.31 × 10 5 °C/s to 9.56 × 10 5 °C/s with the increase in scanning rates from 400 mm/s to 1200 mm/s, measured by recently developed real-time temperature monitoring of melt pools. Columnar grains are dominant, with distinct crystallographic textures forming in the melt pools. At a slower scanning speed, the keyhole mode shows three different textures forming at different depths (crystallographically layered structure), while, at a faster scanning speed, the conduction mode shows only random grain orientation. There are no pores/voids detected, and the columnar grain morphology and columnar grain width (8.6 μm to 12.4 μm) follow the analysis framework in terms of thermal gradient and solidification rate analysis. This implies that laser surface re-melting provides the potential to modify the surface structure from a random grain orientation to a crystallographically layered structure.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Step-loaded creep testing of Zircaloy-4 cladding at higher temperatures in the α-phase

A refined understanding of zirconium-based cladding thermomechanical performance during rapid transients is essential for enhancing the safety and operation of light-water reactors. Traditional models for zirconium alloys under accident conditions generally assume that creep dominates fuel cladding performance. Here, these historic models have largely remained unchanged and serve as the basis for safety criteria development. As the U.S. nuclear industry pursues higher burnup levels, the increased release of fission gases during transients raises the risk of cladding failure in the low-temperature hcp α-phase, making the fidelity of these models of greater importance. Creep testing was conducted from 550–700°C with 25–120 MPa applied hoop stresses to investigate Zircaloy-4 deformation at accident-relevant temperatures in the α-phase. Step-loading was employed to capture creep behavior across a wide stress range from a single sample. The stress-strain rate data at higher temperatures (650 and 700°C) were well-described by isotropic versions of the Erbacher and Kaddour models, while the lower temperature data (550 and 600°C) were underpredicted by both anisotropic and isotropic model variants. Greater strain rates during the initial loading step at 650 and 700°C were attributed to recrystallization and grain growth of sub-micron crystallites. Yet, texture analysis revealed the basal split texture remained after testing. These observations produced results suggesting Zircaloy-4 claddings experience higher creep rates across the α-phase than previously thought, possibly related to dynamic anisotropy due to temperature dependent activation of deformation mechanisms, effects of biaxial loading, and variation in material condition between the current testing used in previous model development.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Quantitative characterization of gradient microstructures: A study on friction stir spot processing of pure cobalt

Heterogeneous microstructures in polycrystalline metals can enhance the strength and ductility, outperforming homogeneous structures of similar composition. This study investigates deformed cobalt via friction stir spot processing with varying dwell times to uncover the effects of plastic deformation and heat generation on the formation of morphological, phase, and grain boundary character gradients. A new approach to quantify the morphological gradients in materials, which describes grain morphology in terms of density followed by parametric regression, enables direct quantification of processing depth and gradient sharpness. Results show that longer processing times increase the steepness of morphological gradients and reduce the deformation depth for friction stir spot processing with low plunge depths and high tool rotational speeds. The amount of retained FCC is increased in the shorter processing conditions, primarily due to refined grain size, increased defect content, and reduced heat generation. Crystallographic texture analysis of the HCP phase indicated a dominant B-fiber described by (0001) ∥ shear plane normal in the extreme processing conditions and the formation of a P-fiber, shear direction ∥ ⟨11$\bar2$0⟩ for intermediate dwell times. The texture of the FCC phase for low processing times was a C texture {100}⟨011⟩ where longer processing times were dominated by a [001] fiber texture with a main {110}⟨100⟩ orientation and emergence of a slight [111] fiber in the longest processing condition. The approaches outlined in this work give insight into quantifying gradients and improve the understanding of highly deformed cobalt.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Interaction between dissolution and precipitation during olivine carbonation: Implications for CO 2 mineralization

Large-scale carbonation of olivine is considered a promising approach for in situ mineral carbonation, offering a permanent and stable method for CO 2 storage. A critical aspect of this process is understanding how dissolution and precipitation interact, as this could drive fracturing and enhance further reactions. In this study, we conducted carbonation experiments on olivine using CO 2 -saturated aqueous solutions of NaHCO 3 and NaCl. Two experimental setups were used: one representing an open geochemical system and the other a closed system, corresponding to reaction-limited and flow-limited scenarios, respectively. Further, post-reaction textural analysis using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed surface coatings of reaction products in the closed system, while etch pits and etch channels were prevalent in the open system. Although no direct evidence of reaction-driven fracturing was observed, etch pits and etch channels may serve as initiation points for subcritical crack formation and growth, potentially maintaining permeability and exposing new unreacted surfaces. Using linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) model, we estimate that microcracks could propagate under a pressure of 0.1 GPa if reaction products accumulate within the etch pits. Our findings offer new insights into the mechanisms governing olivine carbonation.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Metagenome-assembled genomes from topsoils collected during NEON campaign in East River, CO (06/14/2018-06/28/2018)

The Watershed Function Science Focus Area (WF SFA) at Lawrence Berkeley National Lab is working to build a mechanistic understanding of the distribution and dynamics of biogeochemical processes in mountainous watersheds and their response to perturbation. In June 2018, the NEON (National Ecological Observatory Network) Airborne Observatory Platform (AOP) performed a taskable airborne imaging campaign to collect visible to shortwave infrared (VSWIR) imaging spectroscopy and LiDAR data across 330 km2 in the Upper East River at Crested Butte, CO. We conducted a parallel ground sampling campaign to sample vegetation traits, as well as soil physical, chemical, and microbiological characteristics. We collected these samples from 438 sites across 12 locations spanning much of the elevation, topographic, and geologic variability across the study area. A subset of 250 samples were used for soil metagenomics which is presented here. In addition, at each site, vegetation samples were collected to measure species-specific leaf water content and leaf mass area, foliar elemental composition and foliar CN stable isotope ratios. Soil samples were collected to measure soil physical properties which include bulk density and soil texture analysis. A suite of soil chemical properties was measured from the samples collected at each site, including pH, organic matter, concentrations exchangeable cations, total elemental composition, and the concentrations of extractable N pools (e.g. total free amino acids, ammonium, nitrate, dissolved organic N, and total dissolved N). Additionally, we have measured soil microbial biomass CN stoichiometry. Here, we present 1982 metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) for the bacterial and archaeal community from topsoil collected from during NEON 2018 campaign. All metagenomes were sequenced at JGI (Joint Genome Institute) (GOLD Study ID: Gs0149986). Metagenomes were assembled using JGI Metagenome Workflow (10.1128/mSystems.00804-20). The dataset includes (1) zip files for 1982 MAG fasta files (neon_genomes1-5.tar.gz, split into 5 tarballs to keep tarballs under 0.5 GB), (2) neon_Gs0149986_samples_soilproperties_metagenomes.csv: the sample information together with the accession numbers for the underlying metagenomes and the associated soil physical and chemical measurements in NMDC (National Microbiome Data Collaborative) compliant format, (3) neon_Gs0149986.kml: location bounding box file for the sampled locations, (4) samples.csv: sample metadata file used to register Internationall Generic Sample Numbers (IGSNs), (5) flmd.csv: file level metadata file, and (6) dd.csv: data dictionary file. This work was supported by the Watershed Function Science Focus Area at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory funded by the US Department of Energy, Office of Science, Biological and Environmental Research under Contract No. DE-AC02-05CH11231.

2018 NEON and 2025 CHESS Campaigns↗
DOE OSTI2025

Influence of Supplementary Blue and Far-Red Light on the Morphology and Texture of Ocimum basilicum L. Grown in Controlled Environments

Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) is highly sensitive to environmental conditions and is an ideal candidate for cultivation in controlled environment agriculture (CEA). Light-emitting diode technology has become essential in CEA, offering precise control over light intensity, spectrum, and duration. This study investigated how supplemental blue light, far-red light, or their combination influences basil biomass, morphology, texture, and color when added to a white + red light spectrum. Basil ’Prospera’ and ’Amethyst’ were exposed to five light treatments for 14–28 days: white + red at 180 µmol∙m−2∙s−1 (W) as the control, and four treatments with an additional 60 µmol∙m−2∙s−1 of either white + red (+W60), blue (+B60), far-red (+FR60), or a combination of B and FR (+B30+FR30), for a total photon flux density of 240 µmol∙m−2∙s−1. The results demonstrated that +B60 and +W60 light treatments increased leaf thickness by 17–20% compared to the +FR60 treatment. Conversely, texture analysis revealed that +FR60-treated leaves had higher puncture resistance, with ’Amethyst’ and ’Prospera’ requiring 1.57 ± 0.43 N and 1.45 ± 0.35 N of force, respectively, compared to 1.19 ± 0.32 N and 1.1 ± 0.21 N under +B60. These findings suggest that tailored light recipes in CEA can optimize basil quality, allowing growers to modify traits like leaf color, thickness, and toughness.

Oehler, Madison A. (ORCID:0000000297919667)↗
DOE OSTI2026

High energy X-ray characterization of the microstructure of PuGa alloy samples at macroscopic depths and non-ambient conditions

High energy (95 keV) X-rays were utilized to characterize the microstructure of eight PuGa alloy samples at room temperature and during cooling to ∼10 K. The samples had different Ga content (nominally 0-3.4 at.%), age, and history. A ninth sample, similarly characterized with neutron diffraction, was included to extend the Ga range to 7 at.%. The samples span the range from single phase α (monoclinic) to δ (face-centered cubic) PuGa, as well as a two-phase α′/δ sample. The crystallographic textures, phase fractions, lattice parameters and dislocation densities of each sample were evaluated through distinct analysis techniques. The textures of the samples were modest. In each case, the dislocation densities were relatively high, comparable to cold worked metals and metals exposed to similar radiation dose. At room temperature, the lattice parameters determined in the predominantly single-phase samples were larger than expected based on the nominal Ga concentration. The observed lattice thermal expansions of the single-phase δ samples to 10 K are self-consistent across the samples and consistent with previous measurements reported in the literature. Significantly larger thermal lattice strain is observed in the δ phase of the two-phase material due to mechanical constraint from the α′ phase, which has a three times larger thermal expansion and is much harder than the δ phase. In conclusion, the results demonstrate the unique value of high-energy X-rays for relatively routine microstructural characterization of Pu alloy samples.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Characterization of Recrystallized Grains During Static Recrystallization of Hot-Compressed Mg–Zn–Ca Alloys Using In Situ Far-Field High-Energy Diffraction Microscopy

In this study, we explored the effect of Zn content on the static recrystallization of three 80 pct hot-compressed alloys, Mg–0.5Zn–0.1Ca wt pct (ZX050), Mg–1Zn–0.1Ca wt pct (ZX10), and Mg–3.2Zn–0.1Ca wt pct (ZX30), using far-field high-energy microscopy (ff-HEDM). Individual recrystallized grains were tracked and their 3D centroid, relative volume, and grain-averaged crystallographic orientation were measured during annealing. These measurements were used to compare the recrystallization kinetics and texture evolution of recrystallized grains in ZX alloys as a function of the Zn content. Fully recrystallized microstructures were observed for the ZX30 and the ZX10 alloys after annealing at 230 °C and 330 °C, respectively. In contrast, only a partially recrystallized microstructure for the ZX050 alloy was observed after > 1 hour of annealing at 430 °C. The resistance to recrystallization with decreasing Zn content was also confirmed by detecting faster growth rates of recrystallized grains in the ZX10 and ZX30 alloys, and slower growth rates in the ZX050 alloy. The significant recrystallization texture weakening of the ZX10 and ZX30 alloys and the development of a basal texture in the ZX05 alloy were described based on the orientation dependency of nucleation and growth of recrystallized grains. The analysis demonstrated that texture weakening was associated with increasing Zn content in Mg–Zn–Ca alloys.

Roumina, Reza [Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI (U↗
DOE OSTI2025

Ultra-high temperature testing and performance of L-PBF C103

Additive Manufacturing (AM) of refractory alloys is gaining traction as a materials processing route for components subject to extreme temperature environments. Due to the low oxidation resistance of refractory alloys, novel methods for evaluating their elevated temperature performance must be developed. In this work, a Gleeble® 3800 thermomechanical load frame was modified to evaluate the mechanical properties of laser powder bed fusion (L-PBF) consolidated niobium alloy C103 ranging from room temperature (RT) to 1400 °C. The fixturing and sample geometry were designed to accommodate Joule heating and prevent damage to the test chamber. Oxidation of the samples was minimized via testing in vacuum level of 1E-5 Torr. Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), yield strength (YS), elongation, and strain-hardening behavior were determined as a function of temperature. L-PBF C103 presented an average UTS of ∼650 MPa and over 25 % elongation at RT. Above RT, the UTS and YS dropped then leveled off from 500 °C to 1000 °C with values ranging from ∼400 MPa to ∼460 MPa, which is consistent with dynamic strain aging observed in this class of alloys. The strength rapidly declined after 1200 °C to ∼150 MPa at 1400 °C. Fractography indicated ductile fractures for the C103 at all test temperatures, and Electron Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) analysis revealed a textured microstructure and the presence of dynamic recrystallization within the necked region of the sample tested at 1400 °C.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗
DOE OSTI2025

An engineering perspective on evaluating mechanisms governing ductility in pure molybdenum

The United States lacks a stable domestic supply of 99 mTc, a critical medical imaging isotope generated from 99 Mo. Accelerator-based production using 100 Mo targets (aMo) introduces mechanical concerns due to the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature inherent to refractory metals like Mo. This study evaluates the tensile behavior of aMo targets from 25 to 1000 °C, compared to powder-metallurgy-processed natural Mo (PMo) and cast-and-rolled Mo (RMo), both as-received and after 5 ppm O 2 exposure in flowing He. RMo showed superior ductility (7.3% at 25 °C, 48% at 1000 °C) and strength, attributed to its fine, elongated grains and high geometrically necessary dislocation density. PMo exhibited variable ductility (up to 33%), while aMo remained brittle, with a maximum elongation of 10.4% at 600 °C. EBSD analysis revealed weak texture in PMo and aMo, but high defect density in aMo limited dislocation mobility. This work links processing, microstructure, and deformation mechanisms to guide fabrication of ductile refractory targets.

Hyer, Holden C. [Oak Ridge National Laboratory (OR↗
DOE OSTI2026

Symmetry-protected topological polarons

Emergent quasiparticles in solids often exhibit unique topological properties as a result of the complex interplay between charge, orbital, spin, and lattice degrees of freedom. Among these quasiparticles, the polaron occupies a special place as the first known manifestation of the interaction between a fermion and a boson field. While polarons have been investigated for almost a century, whether these quasiparticles exhibit topological properties and why remain open questions. Here, we establish the universal symmetry principles governing the topology of polar textures in large polarons. Using a group-theoretic analysis, we identify four distinct classes of polar textures in time-reversal-invariant systems, and we show that they carry integer topological charges. We validate this classification by performing state-of-the-art first-principles calculations of materials representative of each class. For these materials, we compute the fingerprints of polaron topology in Huang diffuse scattering and propose ultrafast electron and X-ray scattering experiments to detect these quasiparticles.

75 CONDENSED MATTER PHYSICS, SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND↗
DOE OSTI2026

braggedgemodeling

braggedgemodeling (bem) is an open-source Python package for modeling neutron Bragg-edge imaging. It computes the wavelength-dependent total neutron cross-section of a material (coherent and incoherent elastic, coherent and incoherent inelastic scattering, and absorption) from its crystal structure, and implements the March-Dollase texture model and the Jorgensen peak profile, supporting quantitative analysis of energy-resolved neutron imaging data (phase, stress/strain, and texture). Published in the Journal of Open Source Software (2018).

Lin, Jiao [Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), O↗
DOE OSTI2024

Alloying effects on deformation induced microstructure evolution in copper

In this work, we investigated the effects of alloying elements on plastic deformation and microstructure evolution in polycrystalline copper (Cu) and Cu alloyed with 1 wt. % lead (Cu-1 %Pb). These materials were selected due to the size mismatch between Cu and Pb, with the latter forming precipitates at grain boundaries. Multi-modal characterization techniques, including neutron diffraction, electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), along with finite element simulations were employed to study the deformation behavior across multiple length scales. While both Cu and Cu-1%Pb exhibited similar macroscale response and final deformation textures, both dislocation line profile analysis and TEM revealed increased dislocation density in deformed Cu-1%Pb specimens. The presence of lead precipitates also significantly affected local plastic deformation during compression, with their influence diminishing with increasing strain. These results demonstrate the complex relationships between alloying elements, plastic deformation, microstructural evolution, and material behavior under load. The insights gained from this multi-scale and multi-technique approach contribute to the fundamental understanding of microstructural evolution in immiscible alloys and are valuable for tailoring the properties of structural materials for specific engineering applications.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Myna: Connecting powder bed fusion build data to simulation tools for digital twin applications

Additive manufacturing (AM), as a digital process, can generate a detailed digital thread linking a part’s design and manufacturing to its operational performance. As AM systems advance, an increasing amount of process data is stored in manufacturing databases. In principle, this data can be utilized by simulation-based digital twin approaches, such as real-time process control and asynchronous post-processing guidance. However, few tools currently exist for systematically integrating digital thread data with computational tools. Here, in this study, we propose a software package, called Myna, for connecting data from powder bed fusion processes to simulation tools. The utility of such a platform is demonstrated using build data from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory Manufacturing Demonstration Facility “Peregrine v2023-10” public dataset to automatically configure and run 54 semi-analytical 3DThesis melt pool simulations, 78 numerical Additive FOAM melt pool simulations, and 3 ExaCA microstructure simulations. The simulated, spatially registered microstructures are then compared directly with electron backscatter diffraction characterization of the corresponding as-built part locations. The resulting simulated microstructure showed variation as a function of process parameters, particularly stripe width; however, the experimental data had little variation between the microstructure texture and grain size resulting from different processing conditions. Analysis of the discrepancies suggest that it is possible a two-phase ferritic-austenitic solidification model is needed to accurately predict grain size and texture for certain stainless steel 316L feedstock compositions under powder bed fusion conditions, providing direction for future research. As illustrated here, due to the number and complexity of the simulations involved in AM process-structure–property predictions, automated methods to connect process data and simulations will remain necessary tools for testing hypotheses and implementing digital twin applications.

Knapp, Gerald L. [Oak Ridge National Laboratory (O↗
DOE OSTI2025

Stability, electronic quantum states, and magnetic interactions of Er 3+ ions in Ga 2 ⁢O 3

Here, we report an ab initio study of phase stability, defect formation, electronic structure, and multiple magnetic, Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya, optical, hyperfine, and crystal field interactions in erbium (Er)-doped wide band gap 𝛼- and 𝛽-gallium oxides (Ga 2 ⁢O 3 ), critically important to make a foundation for both optoelectronic and quantum information applications. The chemical, structural, mechanical, and dynamical stabilities of the pristine phases are confirmed from respective negative formation energies, negative cohesive energies, favorable elastic constants, and positive phonon frequencies. The phonon dispersions indicate that the Ga-O bonds are uniform in the 𝛼-phase, while they vary in the 𝛽-phase due to the anisotropic polyhedral movement. The defect formation energy analysis confirms that both Er-doped 𝛼- and 𝛽−Ga 2 ⁢O 3 prefer Er 3+ (neutral) state. The underestimated band gaps of the pristine phases from standard density functional theory (DFT) calculations as compared to experimental values are corrected by employing the hybrid functional calculations, resulting in the indirect band gaps of 5.21 eV in 𝛼−Ga 2 ⁢O 3 and 4.94 eV in 𝛽−Ga 2 ⁢O 3 . The site preference energy analysis indicates partial occupation of Er in the octahedral site of Ga. The anisotropic nature of hyperfine tensor coefficients of Er is similar in both phases, which may be due to the occupation of Er in the same octahedral Ga site. On the other hand, the calculated magnetic exchange interaction between two Er dopants is negative for 𝛼 and positive for 𝛽, indicating an antiferromagnetic (AFM) ground state in the former and a ferromagnetic (FM) ground state in the latter. Large values of Dzyaloshinskii-Moriya interactions (DMIs) are obtained along the 𝑥 direction in the 𝛼 and along the 𝑦 direction in the 𝛽. The large DMI may support exotic magnetic textures, a promising direction for spintronic applications. The analysis of dielectric constants and refractive indices of both pristine and Er-doped phases shows a good agreement with available experimental values. The calculated optical anisotropy is slightly higher in 𝛽 than those in 𝛼, which is due to the involvement of lower symmetry in 𝛽. The crystal field coefficients (CFCs) calculated from DFT are used to analyze 4⁢𝑓 multiplets and 4⁢𝑓 −4⁢𝑓 transitions. Thus calculated lowest energy level of the first excited state to the lowest energy level of the ground state is about 1.53 µ⁢m, which is in a good agreement with available experiments, and it falls within the quantum telecommunication wavelength range.

3-dimensional systems↗
DOE OSTI2026

Spatiotemporal and Statistical Mapping of Transition Metal Equilibria in Alkaline Media

Transition metal dissolution and redeposition (D/R) kinetics in alkaline media play a critical role in various chemical and electrochemical processes. Competitive reaction kinetics between different transition metals can modulate individual metal behavior in these processes. To date, these phenomena have remained largely unmeasured, and even when captured, they are difficult to statistically characterize due to their dynamic nature, simultaneous occurrence, and spatially heterogeneous nature. Here, in this study, we develop a statistical analysis framework based on in situ and operando X-ray fluorescence microscopy (XFM) to investigate the relative D/R kinetics of multiple transition metals in alkaline media. By employing statistical analysis, we quantify the spatial distribution of D/R species and assess the rate at which the system reaches equilibrium under varying reaction conditions. We show that pH does not simply change the rate of dissolution and redeposition, but reorganizes the cross-element kinetic correlations among Ni, Fe, and Mn and accelerates the spatial equilibration of D/R events, as quantified through correlation analysis, reaction-rate estimation, probability function distributions, and texture-based monitoring statistics. Additionally, we demonstrate how modifying the solvent environment can influence D/R kinetics, providing a pathway for tuning materials synthesis and process optimization. Our study offers valuable insights into the complex interplay between different transition metals and provides a reliable statistical framework for spatial analysis of diverse imaging data sets, enabling deeper extraction of latent information across multiple modalities.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗