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US industrial sector water management traditionally overlooks high-value treated water reuse opportunities. Here, to reshape the narrative around industrial water reuse, water-related process boundaries should be expanded to include all water sources and sinks and focus on opportunities for on-site circularity.
This report explores the concept of water reuse systems for cooling tower water makeup, specifically focusing on the use of alternative water sources, and the viability of these systems for Air Force installations and operations. Cooling is a critical requirement for DAF operations, and alternative water supplies that enable cooling tower use during a disruption of utility-supplied water increase Air Force resilience. The components of a water reuse system for cooling towers include alternative water supplies, storage, treatment, and distribution in addition to the cooling tower itself. Alternative water sources are not derived from fresh surface water or groundwater and can provide a redundant water supply to utility supply or to fresh water produced on site.
Ultrafiltration (UF) has been widely utilized as water pretreatment for different applications especially in water reuse. The UF system operation is characterized by a filtration phase, where particles accumulate on the membrane surface resulting in an increase in the transmembrane pressure (TMP) and a cleaning phase, where foulants are removed through cleaning cycles including physical backwash and chemical-enhanced backwash (CEB). In this study, data from an engineering-scale UF system treating reclaimed wastewater were used to assess the impact of backwashing on the filtration process. TMP backwash trigger, backwash duration, and CEB frequency were purposely varied for a cycle-by-cycle investigation on the net water production, water recovery, initial operating TMP, and filtration cycle duration. As the TMP backwash trigger was varied between 62 and 145kPa, the maximum net water production (63 m 3 /d) was achieved at 103kPa and water recovery remained relatively constant at approximately 92%. Backwash durations of 45, 65, and 85s were performed where both net water production and water recovery yielded similar results (~63 m 3 /d and ~ 91%) compared with 103kPa TMP backwash trigger. The CEB frequency was also lowered from one every three backwashes (1/3) to 1/6 and 1/12 and resulted in decreased net water production and water recovery while the initial TMP increased. Interestingly, the total number of CEBs remained approximately constant regardless of their frequency. In conclusion, results suggest that CEB is an important fouling control process to maximize water production.
Membrane distillation (MD) for the treatment of concentrated brines has been limited in part by membrane fouling, resulting in subsequent flux decline and membrane wetting. This study provides new insight into the identification of fouling and scaling mechanisms and pretreatment strategies for mitigating flux decline with MD treatment of water reuse reverse osmosis concentrate (ROC). Bench-scale direct contact MD experiments were performed with untreated and pretreated ROC. Biological activated carbon (BAC), chemical water softening, or fluidized bed crystallization reactor coupled with ion exchange (FBCR-IX) were selected as pretreatment strategies to isolate the effects of organic fouling and calcium scaling. Organic and inorganic compounds were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Calcium ions were found to be the major contributor to flux decline despite the high organic content in the ROC. Minimal organic fouling is likely because the organic matter in the ROC is hydrophilic, limiting hydrophobic-hydrophobic interactions between the organics and the membrane. Furthermore, the water flux declined by 63 % after removing organic compounds by BAC pretreatment, with 60 % of the calcium mass precipitating from the solution. Whereas, the water flux remained constant after removing multivalent ions with fluidized bed crystallization. Cleaning the membrane by acid washing and temperature reversal recovered 73 % and 12 % of the water flux, respectively. The analyses outlined in this study can assist in selecting appropriate fouling and scaling mitigation strategies for water reuse ROC and a wide range of feed solutions used in MD applications.
The presentation at the 34th Annual Conference of the Produced Water Society centers on the PARETO project, offering an overview tailored for new attendees. It emphasizes the latest advancements in the project's capabilities, particularly in the areas of treatment and beneficial reuse of produced water.
Ultrafiltration is examined for use as the first stage of a primary treatment process for spacecraft wastewater. It is hypothesized that ultrafiltration can effectively serve as pretreatment for a reverse osmosis system, removing the majority of organic material in a spacecraft wastewater. However, it is believed that the interaction between the membrane material and the surfactant found in the wastewater will have a significant impact on the fouling of the ultrafiltration membrane. In this study, five different ultrafiltration membrane materials are examined for the filtration of wastewater typical of that expected to be produced onboard the International Space Station. Membranes are used in an unstirred batch cell. Flux, organic carbon rejection, and recovery from fouling are measured. The results of this evaluation will be used to select the most promising membranes for further study.
An experimental investigation of processes and system configurations for reclaiming combined bath and laundry waste waters for reuse as commode flush water was conducted. A 90-min recycle flow was effective in removing particulates and in improving other physical characteristics to the extent that the filtered water was subjectively acceptable for reuse. The addition of a charcoal filter resulted in noticeable improvements in color, turbidity, and suds elimination. Heating and chlorination of the waste waters were investigated for reducing total organism counts and eliminating coliform organisms. A temperature of 335.9 K (145 F) for 30 min and chlorine concentrations of 20 mg/l in the collection tank followed by 10 mg/l in the storage tank were determined to be adequate for this purpose. Water volume relationships and energy-use rates for the waste water reuse systems are also discussed.
A combined filtration-reverse-osmosis water recovery system has been evaluated to determine its capability to reclaim domestic wash water for reuse as a commode water supply. The system produced water that met all chemical and physical requirements established by the U.S. Public Health Service for drinking water with the exception of carbon chloroform extractables, methylene blue active substances, and phenols. It is thought that this water is of sufficient quality to be reused as commode supply water. The feasibility of using a combined filtration and reverse-osmosis technique for reclaiming domestic wash water has been established. The use of such a technique for wash-water recovery will require a maintenance filter to remove solid materials including those less than 1 micron in size from the wash water. The reverse-osmosis module, if sufficiently protected from plugging, is an attractive low-energy technique for removing contaminants from domestic wash water.
Complete retention lagoons with wastewater reuse for agricultural purposes may offer sustainability advantages over alternative systems for small communities in semiarid regions. This study quantifies the environmental life cycle impact of adopting agriculture water reuse systems using case study data to estimate operating and building infrastructure impacts and spatial–temporal modeling to quantify resource trade-offs. Water reuse system benefits are highly dependent on supply–storage–demand dynamics. The relative size of irrigated agricultural land to the lagoon size was the most significant factor influencing site water application rates. The benefits are sensitive to changes in air emissions occurring from the agricultural land and further emphasize the importance of proper fertilizer management when adopting water reuse systems. Wastewater reuse from complete retention lagoons reduce life cycle GHG emissions, primarily through excavation reductions, offset fertilizer use, and especially from increased crop yields from wastewater reuse at previously rainfed sites.
The National Alliance for Water Innovation (NAWI) is the U.S. DOE's 5-year, $110M research Hub focused on desalination and water reuse. NAWI is organized into three Topic Areas in which projects are managed and coordinated: Materials and Manufacturing R&D (M&M), Process Innovation and Intensification R&D (PI&I), and Data, Modeling, and Analysis (DMA). In its first 3.5 years, NAWI has established the largest integrated DOE Innovation Hub (108 Research Consortium member organizations, 440 Alliance member organizations) anchored around its APRIME vision for lowering the cost and energy of desalination and water reuse. NAWI has selected 74 research projects to date, and several have reported major advances in desalination research and technology in leading scientific publications.
This research investigated a novel electrochemical process for producing a ferric iron coagulant for use in treating flowback and produced water (FPW) from hydraulic fracturing and oil production operations. The electrolytic coagulant generation (ECG) system uses an electrochemical cell to produce acid and base from oilfield brine solutions. The acid is used to dissolve scrap iron to provide a Fe 3+ coagulating agent, and the base is used to neutralize the treated water. The costs for generating the ferric iron coagulant were determined as a function of current density and feed water salinity. The process was shown to be effective for removing colloidal bentonite particles from brine solutions. Here, the process has several advantages over conventional electrocoagulation using iron anodes, including: the ability to treat anoxic waters, elimination of electrode fouling, lower cost for the coagulant, and the ability to deliver Fe 3+ doses greater than 1 mM, since it is not limited by the amount of dissolved oxygen required to oxidize ferrous to ferric iron.
Reclaimed municipal wastewater is a crucial component in biofuel production, especially in regions experiencing increasing freshwater scarcity. However, accurately estimating the potential for fuel production is challenging because of the uneven distribution of biofuel feedstock regions and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). This study assesses the viability of using reclaimed municipal water for algal biomass production in pond systems co-located with WWTPs under scenarios driven by biomass production and based on water transport logistics. We performed state- and county-level analysis of reclaimed water resources throughout the United States based on WWTP facility data. We overlaid these data onto estimated algae facility sites and examined the temporal resource availability to address seasonal variations in cultivation demand. Our findings reveal that 2694 billion liters per year of reclaimed water could potentially be used to produce 42.2 million metric tons (ash-free dry weight) of algal biomass, equivalent to 29.2 billion liters of renewable diesel equivalent (RDe). The use of reclaimed water would double current national water reuse and expand such reuse significantly in 455 counties across the United States. However, when we limit the construction of algae facilities to counties that can fully meet their water demand in order to minimize water transport burdens, the available supply decreases by 80%, to 512 billion liters, resulting in annual production of 12.2 billion liters of RDe, which still doubles current biodiesel production. Our analysis highlights the degree to which the location and flow of WWTPs and water transport affect the deployment of algae biofuel facilities and tradeoffs. These findings underscore the importance of improving the current WWTP infrastructure for reclaimed water reuse, especially in southern states.
Access to an adequate quantity of piped water and management of wastewater produced in homes and businesses is an expectation of city dwellers in wealthy countries, and an aspiration for many people living in rapidly developing cities in low- and middle-income countries. It is also crucial to public health and protection of the environment. For well over a century, municipal drinking water provision and wastewater management have been made possible by large investments in centralized systems in which fresh water passes through a small number of drinking water treatment plants before being distributed through a vast underground pipe network to buildings throughout the city (Sedlak 2014). After it is used, wastewater is collected in underground sewers that route it to treatment plants prior to its discharge to the environment. In some water-stressed cities, a fraction of the treated wastewater undergoes additional treatment prior to reuse. This recycled water often is returned to users through another dedicated water distribution system, which is designated in many places with purple pipes (non-potable water reuse). Alternatively, treated wastewater may be subjected to advanced treatment (e.g., reverse osmosis followed by advanced oxidation) prior to being returned to the drinking water supply (potable water reuse).
Executive Summary This Final Report is composed of two major sections. The first section presents experimental results obtained in the laboratory during Budget Period 1. The second section presents results from the field test conducted during Budget Period 2. Laboratory Results This research investigated a novel electrochemical process for producing a ferric iron coagulant for use in treating flowback and produced water from hydraulic fracturing and oil production operations. The treatment system improves the effectiveness and lowers the cost of coagulation processes using Fe3+ as the coagulant. The electrolytic coagulant generation (ECG) system uses an electrochemical cell to produce acid and base from oilfield brine solutions. The acid is used to dissolve scrap iron to provide a Fe3+ coagulating agent. The base is used to neutralize the treated water. Compared to conventional electrocoagulation (EC), the main advantage of the ECG system is an order of magnitude lower cost for the source of iron. The second advantage over conventional EC is that it can deliver Fe3+ doses greater than 1 mM, since it is not limited by the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water required to oxidize ferrous to ferric iron. The capital costs for conventional EC and the ECG system are similar, but the operational costs for the ECG system are an order of magnitude lower than conventional EC. The combined costs for iron and electrical energy for treating 1 m3 of FPW with 1 mM Fe3+ is estimated to be $0.87 for conventional EC, and $0.087 for the ECG system. The estimated all-in cost for treating FPW with a 2 mM Fe3+ dose is $0.73/m3 ($0.12/bbl). Field Test Results The field test was conducted at the Paul Foster Central Tank Battery (CTB) in Lea County, New Mexico from November 10, 2022 through December 15, 2022. The feed water to the system was produced water from the Tatanka 1H formation. After approximately two weeks of testing, the initial batch of produced water had been treated and no untreated produced water was available. Thus, after this time, the feed water to the system consisted of previously treated water (i.e., recycled water). The recycled water had nearly all colloidal particles removed, and had a much lower alkalinity due to precipitation of carbonate minerals during the first pass through the system. Although the recycled water was not an ideal test solution due to its low particulate concentrations, its lower alkalinity did allow us to identify the main problem with the treatment system. The main problem with the treatment system was caused by the high alkalinity of the initial feed water (5.4 meq/L) that consumed a significant fraction of the electrochemically generated acid. This resulted in pH values exiting the iron contact tank that were too high to dissolve enough iron to effectively treat the produced water. Tests performed with recycled water with lower alkalinity did not have this issue, and dissolved iron concentrations greater than 20 mM could be achieved. One consistent observation was that effluent water from the iron contact tank was always free of particulates, even when fed with circumneutral solutions. This suggests that there is no need to dissolve high concentrations of iron if all the water to be treated is passed through the scrap iron canister. In this case, dissolved O2 and hypochlorous acid can promote sufficient iron corrosion to provide an effective coagulating agent – even in neutral pH water. This solves the problem resulting from highly alkaline produced water. Modifications to the design of the treatment system were made based on the field test results. These modifications will add minimal additional cost, and were tested in bench-scale laboratory experiments. In short-term testing, the modified treatment process was able to remove colloidal FeS particulates to levels below detection. Long-term, steady state testing will be required to determine whether the modified process is suitable for commercial treatment systems.
In order to minimize launch requirements necessary to meet the demands of long-term spaceflight, NASA will reuse water reclaimed from various on-board sources including urine, feces, wash water and humidity condensate. Development of reclamation systems requires the promulgation of water quality standards for potable reuse of the reclaimed water. Existing standards for domestic U.S. potable water consumption were developed, but do not consider the peculiar problems associated with the potable reuse of recycled water. An effort was made to: (1) define a protocol by which comprehensive reclaimed water potability/palatability criteria can be established and updated; and (2) continue the effort to characterize the organic content of reclaimed water in the Regenerative Life Support Evaluation.
Water reuse for irrigation activities is becoming a crucial worldwide challenge due to the depletion of water sources. Anyway, agricultural drainage can potentially contain dangerous contaminants such as metals, pesticides, and herbicides, including atrazine. To address the need for agriculture wastewater purification, we investigated atrazine removal from simulated wastewater by electro-oxidation using platinum-coated titanium electrodes on a lab-scale experimental apparatus. The effects of electrolyte composition and concentration, i.e. ionic strength and applied current density on atrazine removal, were investigated. The results demonstrated that the electrochemical oxidation of the herbicide occurred through two routes, depending on the presence or absence of oxidizing chlorine species. The generation of intermediates during the treatment was monitored and quantified by evaluating the effect of an inert electrolyte (NaClO 4 ) versus an oxidizable chlorine species (NaCl). In both experimental conditions, five intermediates were identified, including desethyl-atrazine (DEA), hydroxyatrazine (ATZ-OH), desisopropyl-atrazine (DIA) and desethyl-desisopropyl-atrazine (DEDIA). A degradation mechanism and a model for describing hydroxyl radicals and active chlorine species contributions at ATZ oxidation were also proposed. Intermediate evolution profiles suggest that ATZ degradation can be considered as a series–parallel reaction system. Finally, the energy requirement assessment for ATZ removal was carried out. The highest ATZ removal (≅98%) was achieved with NaCl = 0.08 M, J = 60 A/m −2 , and E C = 5.83 kWh m −3 . Results highlight that atrazine removal was improved when an active chlorine species (NaCl) was present in the water solution. Moreover, the addition of chlorine species during electro-oxidation is an energy-saving strategy. Collectively, electro-oxidation technique can be efficiently applied to treat polluted water in order to meet the needs of recycling water quality and reduce resource consumption.