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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 199 records · Page 11
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2011

NO PLIF Imaging in the CUBRC 48 Inch Shock Tunnel

Nitric Oxide Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence (NO PLIF) imaging is demonstrated at a 10 kHz repetition rate in the Calspan-University at Buffalo Research Center s (CUBRC) 48-inch Mach 9 hypervelocity shock tunnel using a pulse burst laser-based high frame rate imaging system. Sequences of up to ten images are obtained internal to a supersonic combustor model, located within the shock tunnel, during a single approx.10-millisecond duration run of the ground test facility. This represents over an order of magnitude improvement in data rate from previous PLIF-based diagnostic approaches. Comparison with a preliminary CFD simulation shows good overall qualitative agreement between the prediction of the mean NO density field and the observed PLIF image intensity, averaged over forty individual images obtained during several facility runs.

Jiang, N.↗
DOE OSTI2024

High-Fidelity Velocity and Concentration Measurements of Turbulent Buoyant Jets

Accurate models of turbulent buoyant flows are essential for the design of the cooling circuit of nuclear reactors and passive safety systems. However, available models fail to fully capture the physics of turbulent mixing when buoyancy becomes predominant with respect to momentum. Therefore, high-fidelity experiments of well-controlled fundamental flows are needed to develop and validate more accurate models. We analyze experiments of positive and negative turbulent buoyant jets, both in uniform and stratified environments, with the aim of understanding the thermal hydraulics of turbulent mixing with variable density and providing high-fidelity data for the development and validation of turbulence models. Non-intrusive, simultaneous particle image velocimetry and laser-induced fluorescence measurements were carried out to acquire instantaneous velocity and concentration fields on a vertical section parallel to the axis of a jet in the self-similar region. The refractive index matching method was applied to measure high-resolution buoyant jets with up to 8.6% density difference. These data are free of the typical errors that characterize optical measurements of buoyancy-driven flows (e.g. natural and mixed convection) where the refractive index of the fluid is inhomogeneous throughout the measurement domain. Turbulent statistics and entrainment of buoyant jets in uniform and stratified environments are presented. These data are compared with non-buoyant jets in a uniform environment, as a reference to investigate the effects of buoyancy and stratification on turbulent mixing. The results will be used for the assessment of current turbulence models and as a basis for the development of a new model that captures turbulent mixing.

laser induced fluorescence↗
DOE OSTI2026

Toward Intelligent Multimodal Holography for Real-Time Chemical Imaging of Dynamic Ion Separation

Molecular-level visualization of ion transport and separation dynamics in complex environments is crucial for advancing energy systems, water purification, and critical materials recovery. Achieving this requires imaging platforms that combine structural sensitivity, chemical specificity, and real-time operation. Digital off-axis holography (DOAH) provides high-throughput, label-free quantitative phase imaging but inherently lacks chemical selectivity. Integrating DOAH with complementary spectroscopic channels such as fluorescence or hyperspectral imaging introduces the needed molecular specificity, while also creating challenges in multimodal data fusion, synchronization, and computational throughput. Artificial intelligence offers a powerful route to address these limitations by uniting physics-based reconstruction with data-driven interpretation. In this Perspective, we outline a framework for intelligent multimodal holography and demonstrate its potential using a preliminary AI-driven test case. Raw DOAH holograms of lanthanide solutions subjected to magnetic field gradients were analyzed using multi-agent AI workflows that autonomously selected reconstruction tools, extracted NMF components, and generated scientific claims consistent with true paramagnetic and diamagnetic behavior. This demonstration shows how AI-enabled reasoning can deliver real-time chemical–structural interpretation directly from raw holograms. Together, these advances define a path toward adaptive, intelligent holography platforms capable of supporting in situ chemical separations, dynamic ion transport analysis, and next-generation interfacial science.

Ricchiuti, Giovanna↗
NASA NTRS2002

A comparison of imaging methods for use in an array biosensor

An array biosensor has been developed which uses an actively-cooled, charge-coupled device (CCD) imager. In an effort to save money and space, a complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) camera and photodiode were tested as replacements for the cooled CCD imager. Different concentrations of CY5 fluorescent dye in glycerol were imaged using the three different detection systems with the same imaging optics. Signal discrimination above noise was compared for each of the three systems.

Evaluation Studies↗
DOE OSTI2025

DNA-PAINT Imaging with Hydrogel Imprinting and Clearing

Hydrogel-embedding is a versatile technique in fluorescence microscopy, offering stabilization, optical clearing, and the physical expansion of biological specimens. DNA-PAINT is a super-resolution microscopy approach based on the diffusion and transient binding of fluorescently labeled oligos, but its feasibility in hydrogels has not yet been explored. In this study, we demonstrate that polyacrylamide hydrogels support sufficient diffusion for effective DNA-PAINT imaging. Using acrydite-anchored oligonucleotides imprinted from patterned DNA origami nanostructures and microtubule filaments in fixed cells, we find that hydrogel embedding preserves docking strand positioning at the nanoscale. Sample clearing via protease treatment had minor structural effects on the microtubule structure and enhanced diffusion and accessibility to hydrogel-imprinted docking strands. Our work demonstrates promising potential for diffusion and binding-based fluorescence imaging applications in hydrogel-embedded samples.

DNA origami↗
NASA NTRS1986

Simultaneous measurements of velocity and pressure fields in subsonic and supersonic flows through image-intensified detection of laser-induced fluorescence

An optical technique is presented for combined, spatially resolved measurements of two-dimensional velocity and pressure fields in compressible flows. The single-mode frequency of an argon laser is fixed in the wing of an absorption line of iodine molecules, seeded in an underexpanded round jet of nitrogen gas. The emitted fluorescence, being proportional to the amount of absorbed radiation and hence the absorption line-shape function, is detected with an intensified 100 x 100 photodiode array camera. A single-microchannel-plate image intensifier is fiber-optically coupled to the array in order to improve time resolution and SNR. Three components of the velocity vector in a cross-sectional plane are sequentially probed with four laser sheets from three different directions. By shifting the laser frequency in one of the sheets with a piezo-tuned intra-cavity etalon, the slope of the absorption line can be measured in situ in order to provide the required scaling factor for the velocity measurement. With its short measurement times of less than 250 ms, this method is well suited for blow-down wind tunnel experiments.

Hiller, B.↗
DOE OSTI2026

Quantum Light Imaging of the Plant Root─Rhizobacteria─System Using iLOV Fluorescence

It has been demonstrated recently that the use of specific quantum states of light for two-photon microscopy can lead to a substantial reduction of the intensity of light needed for the imaging of biological objects. This opens new ways to better understand the delicate mechanisms of the interactions of living organisms in the rhizosphere on an extended time scale without optical damage or alteration of their native behavior. Herein, we report a successful realization of entangled two-photon excited fluorescence microscopy of wheat plant roots and a set of biological samples, including purified iLOV protein, bacterial cells expressing iLOV, and combination of these under an extremely low excitation intensity. The entangled two-photon coupling strength of iLOV was modeled using electronic structure calculations which demonstrated that the FMN chromophore in the iLOV protein has an entangled two-photon absorption (ETPA) cross section that is large enough for imaging using weak quantum light for fluorescence excitation. Successful imaging of plant-associated Pantoea sp. YR343 cells expressing iLOV validates the feasibility of using iLOV as a molecular label for characterizing plant-microbe interactions based on entangled photon imaging. In conclusion, the results demonstrate the advantageous use of entangled photon imaging under noninvasive and nondestructive conditions.

Varnavksi, Oleg [Univ. of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI ↗
NASA NTRS2000

Unseeded Scalar Velocity Measurements for Propulsion Flows

Unseeded molecular tagging methods based on single-photon processes that produce long tag lines (>50 mm) have been recently developed and demonstrated by the Combustion Laser Diagnostics Group (Mechanical Engineering Department) at Vanderbilt University [1,2]. In Ozone Tagging Velocimetry (OTV) a line of ozone (O3) is produced by a single photon from a pulsed narrowband argon fluoride (ArF) excimer laser operating at - 193 nm. After a known time delay, t, the position of the displaced (convected in the flow field) O3 tag line is revealed by photodissociation of O3 and subsequent fluorescence of O2, caused by a pulsed laser sheet from a krypton fluoride (KrF) excimer laser operating at - 248 nm. Intensified CCD camera images of the fluorescence are taken from the initial and final tag line locations thus providing unobtrusive means of establishing a velocity profile in the interrogated flow field. The O3 lines are "written" and subsequently "read" by the following reactions:

Pitz, Robert W.↗
NASA NTRS2001

Cytoplasmic pH dynamics in maize pulvinal cells induced by gravity vector changes

In maize (Zea mays) and other grasses, changes in orientation of stems are perceived by pulvinal tissue, which responds to the stimulus by differential growth resulting in upward bending of the stem. The amyloplast-containing bundle sheath cells are the sites of gravity perception, although the initial steps of gravity perception and transmission remain unclear. In columella cells of Arabidopsis roots, we previously found that cytoplasmic pH (pH(c)) is a mediator in early gravitropic signaling (A.C. Scott, N.S. Allen [1999] Plant Physiol 121: 1291-1298). The question arises whether pH(c) has a more general role in signaling gravity vector changes. Using confocal ratiometric imaging and the fluorescent pH indicator carboxy seminaphtorhodafluor acetoxymethyl ester acetate, we measured pH(c) in the cells composing the maize pulvinus. When stem slices were gravistimulated and imaged on a horizontally mounted confocal microscope, pH(c) changes were only apparent within the bundle sheath cells, and not in the parenchyma cells. After turning, cytoplasmic acidification was observed at the sides of the cells, whereas the cytoplasm at the base of the cells where plastids slowly accumulated became more basic. These changes were most apparent in cells exhibiting net amyloplast sedimentation. Parenchyma cells and isolated bundle sheath cells did not show any gravity-induced pH(c) changes although all cell types responded to external stimuli in the predicted way: Propionic acid and auxin treatments induced acidification, whereas raising the external pH caused alkalinization. The results suggest that pH(c) has an important role in the early signaling pathways of maize stem gravitropism.

Non-NASA Center↗
NASA NTRS2008

NASA Tech Briefs, September 2008

Topics covered include: Nanotip Carpets as Antireflection Surfaces; Nano-Engineered Catalysts for Direct Methanol Fuel Cells; Capillography of Mats of Nanofibers; Directed Growth of Carbon Nanotubes Across Gaps; High-Voltage, Asymmetric-Waveform Generator; Magic-T Junction Using Microstrip/Slotline Transitions; On-Wafer Measurement of a Silicon-Based CMOS VCO at 324 GHz; Group-III Nitride Field Emitters; HEMT Amplifiers and Equipment for their On-Wafer Testing; Thermal Spray Formation of Polymer Coatings; Improved Gas Filling and Sealing of an HC-PCF; Making More-Complex Molecules Using Superthermal Atom/Molecule Collisions; Nematic Cells for Digital Light Deflection; Improved Silica Aerogel Composite Materials; Microgravity, Mesh-Crawling Legged Robots; Advanced Active-Magnetic-Bearing Thrust- Measurement System; Thermally Actuated Hydraulic Pumps; A New, Highly Improved Two-Cycle Engine; Flexible Structural-Health-Monitoring Sheets; Alignment Pins for Assembling and Disassembling Structures; Purifying Nucleic Acids from Samples of Extremely Low Biomass; Adjustable-Viewing-Angle Endoscopic Tool for Skull Base and Brain Surgery; UV-Resistant Non-Spore-Forming Bacteria From Spacecraft-Assembly Facilities; Hard-X-Ray/Soft-Gamma-Ray Imaging Sensor Assembly for Astronomy; Simplified Modeling of Oxidation of Hydrocarbons; Near-Field Spectroscopy with Nanoparticles Deposited by AFM; Light Collimator and Monitor for a Spectroradiometer; Hyperspectral Fluorescence and Reflectance Imaging Instrument; Improving the Optical Quality Factor of the WGM Resonator; Ultra-Stable Beacon Source for Laboratory Testing of Optical Tracking; Transmissive Diffractive Optical Element Solar Concentrators; Delaying Trains of Short Light Pulses in WGM Resonators; Toward Better Modeling of Supercritical Turbulent Mixing; JPEG 2000 Encoding with Perceptual Distortion Control; Intelligent Integrated Health Management for a System of Systems; Delay Banking for Managing Air Traffic; and Spline-Based Smoothing of Airfoil Curvatures.

Source record↗
DOE OSTI2026

Nuclear recoil detection with color centers in bulk lithium fluoride

We present initial results on the detection of nuclear recoils in lithium fluoride (LiF) through the fluorescence of color centers created by particle interactions in the crystal lattice. Using light-sheet fluorescence microscopy, we image nuclear recoil tracks from both fast and thermal neutron interactions deep within a cubic-centimeter-scale sample. Automated three-dimensional feature extraction based on machine-learning tools enables the identification and classification of individual events. We observe that the fluorescence response of LiF to gamma irradiation is strongly suppressed, by a factor of 30–50 compared to neutron exposure, demonstrating intrinsic insensitivity to electromagnetic backgrounds. The observed and simulated event characteristics are consistent, including their number, size, and topology. These results establish the feasibility of LiF as a scalable detection medium for rare nuclear-recoil events and constitute a first step toward 10–1000 g scale detectors with single-event sensitivity for applications in reactor-neutrino detection, neutron spectroscopy, and dark matter searches.

Aroujo, G R [University of Zurich]↗
NASA NTRS2006

X-ray Mapping of Terrestrial and Extraterrestrial Materials Using the Electron Microprobe

Lunar samples returned from the Apollo program motivated development of the Bence-Albee algorithm for the rapid and accurate analysis of lunar materials, and established interlaboratory comparability through its common use. In the analysis of mineral and rock fragments it became necessary to combine micro- and macroscopic analysis by coupling electron-probe microanalysis (EPMA) with automated stage point counting. A coarse grid that included several thousand points was used, and initially wavelength-dispersive (WDS) and later energydispersive (EDS) data were acquired at discrete stage points using approx. 5 sec count times. A approx 50 micrometer beam diameter was used for WDS and up to 500 micrometer beam diameter for EDS analysis. Average analyses of discretely sampled phases were coupled with the point count data to calculate the bulk composition using matrix algebra. Use of a defocused beam resulted in a contribution from multiple phases to each analytical point, and the analytical data were deconvolved relative to end-member phase chemistry on the fly. Impressive agreement was obtained between WDS and EDS measurements as well as comparison with bulk chemistry obtained by other methods. In the 30 years since these methods were developed, significant improvements in EPMA automation and computer processing have taken place. Digital beam control allows routine collection of x-ray maps by EDS, and stage mapping for WDS is conducted continuously at slew speed and incrementally by sampling at discrete points. Digital pulse processing in EDS systems has significantly increased the throughput for EDS mapping, and the ongoing development of Si-drift detector systems promises mapping capabilities rivaling WDS systems. Spectrum imaging allows a data cube of EDS spectra to be acquired and sophisticated processing of the original data is possible using matrix algebra techniques. The study of lunar and meteoritic materials includes the need to conveniently: (1) Characterize the sample at microscopic and macroscopic scales with relatively high sensitivity, (2) Determine the modal abundance of minerals, and (3) Identify and relocate discrete features of interest in terms of size and chemistry. The coupled substitution of cations in minerals can result in significant variation in mineral chemistry, but at similar average Z, leading to poor backscattered-electron (BSE) contrast discrimination of mineralogy. It is necessary to discriminate phase chemistry at both the trace element level and the major element level. To date, the WDS of microprobe systems is preferred for mapping due to high throughput and the ability to obtain the necessary intensity to discriminate phases at both trace and major element concentrations. It is desirable to produce fully quantitative compositional maps of geological materials, which requires the acquisition of k-ratio maps that are background and dead-time corrected, and which have been corrected by phi(delta z> or an equivalent algorithm at each pixel. To date, turnkey systems do not allow the acquisition of k-ratio maps and the rigorous correction in this manner. X-ray maps of a chondrule from the Ourique meteorite, and a comb-layered xenolith from the San Francisco volcanic field, have been analyzed and processed to extract phase information. The Ourique meteorite presents a challenge due to relatively low BSE contrast, and has been studied using spectrum imaging. X-ray maps for Si, Mg, and FeK(alpha) were used to produce RGB images. The xenolith sample contains sector-zoned augite, olivine, plagioclase, and basaltic glass. X-ray maps were processed using Lispix and ImageJ software to produce mineral phase maps. The x-ray maps for Mg, Ca, and Ti were used with traceback to generate binary images that were converted to RGB images. These approaches are successful in discriminating phases, but it is desirable to achieve the methods that were used on lunar samples 30 years ago on current microprobe systems. Curnt research includes x-ray mapping analysis of the Dalgety Downs chondrite by micro x-ray fluorescence and spectrum imaging, in collaboration with Kenny Witherspoon of IXRF Systems and Dale Newbury of NIST.

Carpenter, P.↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Enabling Space Biological Knowledge Discovery Through Image and Video Data Sharing

Increased biomedical risks and challenges associated with deep space missions and experiments (cis-Lunar, Mars transit/surface) require new knowledge discovery and development of novel ecosystems. Supporting distant and long-duration missions and experiments requires biological data (from yeast, microbes, fruit flies, C. elegans, plants, crops, rodents, humans) be findable, accessible, interoperable, reusable (FAIR), and maximally open-access. As data-intensive, bioinformatic, meta-analytical, and computer-assisted approaches continue to be a centerpiece of modern research, the NASA Biological and Physical Sciences division is expanding its Open Science capabilities beyond NASA GeneLab. The NASA Ames Life Sciences Data Archive (ALSDA) is a repository which is responsible for collecting and access to space biological imagery and video, alongside tabular and environmental data. In this presentation, we will discuss strategies dealing with archiving, curating, and accessibility of images from very distinct imaging modalities (e.g., micro-computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, photographic images of plants, fluorescence microscopy, behavioral videos, etc.). There are two main challenges: 1. Open-source data storage and 2. Metadata related to the imagery-video. Both have been solved by leveraging two existing open-source systems. For data storage, ALSDA is utilizing components through the Open Microscopy Environment (OME), which can read most imaging proprietary formats and display on a web interface complex multidimensional images (Z stack, multi-channel, temporal, spectral). Most technical metadata from imaging modalities are captured seamlessly. For metadata capturing experimental details, ALSDA (like GeneLab) uses the ISA-Tab specification which relies on the ISA data model to order and classify metadata. The ISA data model uses a tree structure with three files to capture the metadata: The top layer is the Investigations file, the second layer is the Study file(s), and the last layer is the Assay file(s). We believe such an approach may be useful for other types of image research data from other investigators in the AGU community.

imaging↗
DOE OSTI2026

Thermal cycling-driven microstructural changes of eutectic Al–Si phase change materials in SS304 containers revealed by multi-modal imaging

Aluminum-based Al–Si alloys are widely used as phase change materials (PCMs) in thermal energy storage (TES) systems owing to their high volumetric latent heat and superior thermal conductivity. However, their long-term reliability is limited by degradation processes that remain insufficiently understood. In this work, we employ a multimodal, correlative characterization framework to systematically resolve the degradation behavior of eutectic Al–Si PCMs in contact with SS304 containers under repeated thermal cycling. By integrating high-resolution electron microscopy, three-dimensional X-ray fluorescence (3D XRF) imaging, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), we directly link spatially resolved compositional and microstructural evolution to changes in thermophysical properties. The correlative analysis reveals that elemental leaching of Fe, Cr, and Ni from the stainless-steel container into the PCM drives the formation of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) both at the interface and within the bulk PCM, leading to pronounced compositional heterogeneity. These interfacial reactions and diffusion-induced transformations progressively destabilize the Al–Si eutectic, reducing the effective phase-transforming fraction. Consistent with these observations, DSC measurements show a decrease in melting temperature and latent heat of fusion with thermal cycling. These results underscore the critical influence of interfacial reactions and material compatibility on the stability, durability, and overall performance of Al–Si-based TES systems.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
NASA NTRS2004

Advanced Optical Diagnostic Methods for Describing Fuel Injection and Combustion Flowfield Phenomena

Over the past decade advanced optical diagnostic techniques have evolved and matured to a point where they are now widely applied in the interrogation of high pressure combusting flows. At NASA Glenn Research Center (GRC), imaging techniques have been used successfully in on-going work to develop the next generation of commercial aircraft gas turbine combustors. This work has centered on providing a means by which researchers and designers can obtain direct visual observation and measurements of the fuel injection/mixing/combustion processes and combustor flowfield in two- and three-dimensional views at actual operational conditions. Obtaining a thorough understanding of the chemical and physical processes at the extreme operating conditions of the next generation of combustors is critical to reducing emissions and increasing fuel efficiency. To accomplish this and other tasks, the diagnostic team at GRC has designed and constructed optically accessible, high pressurer high temperature flame tubes and sectar rigs capable of optically probing the 20-60 atm flowfields of these aero-combustors. Among the techniques employed at GRC are planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) for imaging molecular species as well as liquid and gaseous fuel; planar light scattering (PLS) for imaging fuel sprays and droplets; and spontaneous Raman scattering for species and temperature measurement. Using these techniques, optical measurements never before possible have been made in the actual environments of liquid fueled gas turbines. 2-D mapping of such parameters as species (e.g. OH-, NO and kerosene-based jet fuel) distribution, injector spray angle, and fuel/air distribution are just some of the measurements that are now routinely made. Optical imaging has also provided prompt feedback to researchers regarding the effects of changes in the fuel injector configuration on both combustor performance and flowfield character. Several injector design modifications and improvements have resulted from this feedback. Alternate diagnostic methods are constantly being evaluated as to their suitability as a diagnostic tool in these environments. A new method currently under examination is background oriented Schlieren (BOS) for examining the fuel/air mixing processes. While ratioing the Stokes and anti-Stokes nitrogen lines obtained from spontaneous Raman is being refined for temperature measurement. While the primary focus of the GRC diagnostic work remains optical species measurement and flow stream characterization, an increased emphasis has been placed on our involvement in flame code validation efforts. A functional combustor code should shorten and streamline future combustor design. Quantitative measurements of flow parameters such as temperature, species concentration, drop size and velocity using such methods as Raman and phase Doppler anemometry will provide data necessary in this effort.

Locke, Randy J.↗
DOE OSTI2026

Evaluation of an event-driven 3FI ASIC for spectroscopic X-ray detection with synchrotron radiation

The novel design and evaluation on the NSLS-II beamline of the 3FI application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) bump-bonded to a simple, planar, 2D segmented silicon sensor are presented. The ASIC was developed for full-field fluorescence spectral X-ray imaging (3FI). It is a small-scale prototype that features a square array of 32 × 32 pixels, and the size of the pixels is 100 µm × 100 µm. The ASIC was implemented in a 65 nm CMOS integrated circuit fabrication process. Each pixel incorporates a charge-sensitive amplifier, a shaping filter, a discriminator, a peak detector and a sample-and-hold circuit, allowing detection of events and storage of signal amplitudes. The system operates in a frameless event-driven readout mode, outputting analog values for threshold-triggered events, allowing high-speed multi-element X-ray fluorescence data acquisition. The 3FI ASIC achieves per-channel spectrometric performance at a power consumption of only 200 µW per pixel, with nearly all dissipation confined to the analog front-end. An energy resolution is measured at the level of 308 eV full width at half-maximum (FWHM) at 8.04 keV (Cu Kα), and 138 eV FWHM at 3.69 keV (Ca Kα). This per-pixel capability makes the prototype suitable for in situ trace element microanalysis in biological and environmental studies. Moreover, the frameless architecture of the detector is designed to address limitations of conventional X-ray fluorescence microscopy, which typically requires mechanical scanning, by enabling continuous high-throughput data acquisition in future full-field implementations.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗
NASA NTRS1985

Detection of 10 (10) GeV Cosmic Neutrinos with a Space Station

The potential value of SOCRAS (Space Observatory of Cosmic Ray Air Showers) for studying the highest energy cosmic rays, including the neutrinos produced in collisions of cosmic ray protons with photons of the 3 deg background radiation is examined. This instrument would look down at the atmosphere from a space station orbiting the Earth at an altitude of 500 to 600 km. During the night portion of each orbit, air showers would be imaged in the fluorescent light they produce. Progress toward the eventual realization of this scheme is described, including a suggestion by Torii for improving the vertical resolution, measurements of the terrestrial background light by Halverson, and especially an application of the LPM effect, expected to increase the sensitivity for upward moving neutrinos by several orders of magnitude.

Linsley, J.↗