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A combination of independently-determined Earth orientation data has been generated from space-geodetic observations spanning 1976-1993. The approach taken is based upon a Kalman filter that was developed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) for just such a purpose.
We describe a laboratory test of TDI with an unequal arm interferometer. The intent is to ascertain the performance limitations and proof-of-concept for 6 orders of magnitude frequency noise suppression.
Digitally enhanced heterodyne interferometry (DI) is a laser metrology technique employing pseudo-random noise (PRN) codes phase-modulated onto an optical carrier. Combined with heterodyne interferometry, the PRN code is used to select individual signals, returning the inherent interferometric sensitivity determined by the optical wavelength. The signal isolation arises from the autocorrelation properties of the PRN code, enabling both rejection of spurious signals (e.g., from scattered light) and multiplexing capability using a single metrology system. The minimum separation of optical components is determined by the wavelength of the PRN code.
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The development of optical fibers, lasers, and mixers at optical frequencies has offered the hope that active methods can contribute to optical interferometry. Heterodyning, in particular, looks attractive, even though bandwidths are narrower than one would like at present; one might expect this limitation to lessen as technology develops. That expectation, unfortunately, is not likely to benefit interferometry at optical wavelengths because of the intervention of quantum mechanics and the second law of thermodynamics, as Burke (1985a) pointed out. So much 'second quantization' noise is generated that only at infrared frequencies, somewhere in the 10-100 micron range, can one look forward to heterodyning in any realistic sense. The reason is easily understood. Every amplifier, in the quantum limit, works by stimulated emission, even though this basic truth is not obvious at radio frequencies. This means that there must be spontaneous emission occurring within every amplifier, and Strandberg (1957) showed that this implied a limiting noise temperature, T sub N = h nu/k, for any amplifier. Burke (1969) used this result to demonstrate that, if it were not for this quantum noise, the VLBI method would allow one to tell which slit a photon went through before forming an interference pattern, thus violating basic tenants of quantum mechanics. In essence, the second quantization condition Delta N Delta phi greater than or = 1 saves one from paradox. One can state the conclusion simply: any amplifier produces approximately one photon per Hertz of bandwidth. In optical interferometry, one will certainly want bandwidth in the 10(exp 12) to 10(exp 14) Hz range, and that implies an intolerable cacophony of noise photons. Only at infrared frequencies can one tolerate the quantum noise, where the natural noise background may be high and the mixers are not as efficient as one would hope for. The crossover at present is about 10 or 20 microns, but the boundary will shift to longer wavelengths as noise performance improves. One might guess that ultimately a wavelength of about 100 microns will mark the limit of useful amplification and heterodyning in astronomical aperture synthesis interferometry.
The NASA Geodynamics Program is developing a variety of techniques in support of national programs in geodynamics, geomagnetics and earthquake hazard reduction. Global tectonics are to be observed by satellite laser tracking and radio interferometry, which will be used to measure the movements of extended (greater than 200 km) regions to an accuracy of 3 cm, while for shorter distances, lasers enable a more rapid measuring of regional strain accumulation patterns than ground systems. The techniques of Doppler tracking between two satellites to measure the gravity field over the ocean is also under NASA study
Q-switched ruby laser holography with optical equipment to compensate for spatial and temporal incoherence for contouring, aerodynamic visualization, and nondestructive testing
Here, we present the analysis of interferometry diagnostics with the user-friendly Talbot Numerical Tool (TNT), a Fourier-based postprocessing code that enables real-time assessment of plasma systems. TNT performance was explored with visible and infrared interferometry in pulsed-power-driven Z -pinch configurations to expand its capabilities beyond Talbot X-ray interferometry in the high-intensity laser environment. TNT enabled accurate electron density characterization of magnetically driven plasma flows and shocks through phase-retrieval methods that did not require data modification or masking. TNT demonstrated enhanced resolution, detecting below 4 % fringe shift, which corresponds to 8.7 × 10 15 cm –2 within 28 μ m, approaching the laser probing system limit. TNT was tested against a well-known interferometry analysis software, delivering an average resolving power nearly ten times better (~28 μ m versus ~ 210 μ m) when resolving plasma ablation features. TNT demonstrated higher sensitivity when probing sharp electron density gradients in supersonic shocks. A maximum electron areal density of 4.1 × 10 17 cm –2 was measured in the shocked plasma region, and a minimum electron density detection of ~ 1.0 × 10 15 cm –2 was achieved. When probing colliding plasma flows, the calculations of the effective adiabatic index and the associated errors were improved from γ* = 2.6 ± 1.6 – 1.4 ± 0.2 with TNT postprocessing, contributing valuable data for the interpretation of radiative transport. Additional applications of TNT in the characterization of pulsed-power plasmas and beyond are discussed.
For precision displacement measurements, laser metrology is currently one of the most accurate measurements. Often, the measurement is located some distance away from the laser source, and as a result, stringent requirements are placed on the laser delivery system with respect to the state of polarization. Such is the case with the fiber distribution assembly (FDA) that is slated to fly aboard the Space Interferometry Mission (SIM) next decade. This system utilizes a concatenated array of couplers, polarizers and lengthy runs of polarization-maintaining (PM) fiber to distribute linearly-polarized light from a single laser to fourteen different optical metrology measurement points throughout the spacecraft. Optical power fluctuations at the point of measurement can be traced back to the polarization extinction ration (PER) of the concatenated components, in conjunction with the rate of change in phase difference of the light along the slow and fast axes of the PM fiber.
Non-Bayesian statistics were used in simulation studies centered around laser range observations to LAGEOS. The capabilities of satellite laser ranging especially in connection with relative station positioning are evaluated. The satellite measurement system under investigation may fall short in precise determinations of the earth's orientation (precession and nutation) and earth's rotation as opposed to systems as very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) and lunar laser ranging (LLR). Relative station positioning, determination of (differential) polar motion, positioning of stations with respect to the earth's center of mass and determination of the earth's gravity field should be easily realized by satellite laser ranging (SLR). The last two features should be considered as best (or solely) determinable by SLR in contrast to VLBI and LLR.
Since 1979, the Lewis Research Center has examined holographic cinematography for three-dimensional flow visualization. The Nd:YAG lasers used were Q-switched, double-pulsed, and frequency-doubled, operating at 20 pulses per second. The primary subjects for flow visualization were the shock waves produced in two flutter cascades. Flow visualization was by diffuse-illumination, double-exposure, and holographic interferometry. The performances of the lasers, holography, and diffuse-illumination interferometry are evaluated in single-window wind tunnels. The fringe-contrast factor is used to evaluate the results. The effects of turbulence on shock-wave visualization in a transonic flow are discussed. The depth of field for visualization of a turbulent structure is demonstrated to be a measure of the relative density and scale of that structure. Other items discussed are the holographic emulsion, tests of coherence and polarization, effects of windows and diffusers, hologram bleaching, laser configurations, influence and handling of specular reflections, modes of fringe localization, noise sources, and coherence requirements as a function of the pulse energy. Holography and diffuse illumination interferometry are also reviewed.
Electro-optic modulators rely on a change in the index of refraction for the optical wave as a function of an applied voltage. The corresponding change in index acts to delay the wavefront in the waveguide. The goal of this work was to develop a high-speed, high-power waveguide- based modulator (phase and amplitude) and investigate its use as a pulse slicer. The key innovation in this effort is the use of potassium titanyl phosphate (KTP) waveguides, making the highpower, polarization-based waveguide amplitude modulator possible. Furthermore, because it is fabricated in KTP, the waveguide component will withstand high optical power and have a significantly higher RF modulation figure of merit (FOM) relative to lithium niobate. KTP waveguides support high-power TE and TM modes - a necessary requirement for polarization-based modulation as with a Pockels cell. High-power fiber laser development has greatly outpaced fiber-based modulators in terms of its maturity and specifications. The demand for high-performance nonlinear optical (NLO) devices in terms of power handling, efficiency, bandwidth, and useful wavelength range has driven the development of bulk NLO options, which are limited in their bandwidth, as well as waveguide based LN modulators, which are limited by their low optical damage threshold. Today, commercially available lithium niobate (LN) modulators are used for laser formatting; however, because of photorefractive damage that can reduce transmission and increase requirements on bias control, LN modulators cannot be used with powers over several mW, dependent on wavelength. The high-power, high-speed modulators proposed for development under this effort will enable advancements in several exciting fields including lidarbased remote sensing, atomic interferometry, free-space laser communications, and others.
Light velocity from frequency and wavelength differences between gas laser lines, using precision long path interferometry
The Space Interferometer Mission (SIM), scheduled for launch in 2009, is a space-born visible light stellar interferometer capable of micro-arcsecond-level astrometry. The Micro-Arcsecond Metrology testbed (MAM) is the ground-based testbed that incorporates all the functionalities of SIM minus the telescope, for mission-enabling technology development and verification. MAM employs a laser heterodyne metrology system using the Sub-Aperture Vertex-to-Vertex (SAVV) concept. In this paper, we describe the development and modification of the SAVV metrology launchers and the metrology instrument electronics, precision alignments and pointing control, locating cyclic error sources in the MAM testbed and methods to mitigate the cyclic errors, as well as the performance under the MAM performance metrics.
Ground-based, equal-arm-length laser interferometers are being built to measure high-frequency astrophysical graviatational waves. Because of the arm-length equality, laser light experiences the same delay in each arm and thus phase or frequency noise from the laser itself precisely cancels at the photodetector.
We present results characterizing the neutral-density distributions produced by the supersonic nozzles used in experiments on the OMEGA-60 and OMEGA-EP laser systems at the University of Rochester’s Laboratory for Laser Energetics (LLE). Axisymmetric Fluent® simulations using LLE nozzle specifications capture the viscous effects, gas expansion, and shock waves that complicate flow predictions for offsets above the nozzle exit. Here, these simulations show good agreement with neutral-density measurements obtained using a four-wave shearing interferometer. An analytical form is given for the plateau length. Fits to simulation data for boundary layer thickness, mean plateau density, and density ramps are given as functions of nozzle offset and nozzle backing pressure for a number of nozzles and gases.
We develop photoelectron interferometry based on laser-assisted extreme ultraviolet ionization for flexible and robust control of photoelectron circular dichroism in randomly oriented chiral molecules. A comb of XUV photons ionizes a sample of chiral molecules in the presence of a time-delayed infrared or visible laser pulse promoting interferences between components of the XUV-ionized photoelectron wave packet. In striking contrast to multicolor phase control schemes relying on pulse shaping techniques, the magnitude of the resulting chiral signal is here controlled by the time delay between the XUV and laser pulses. Furthermore, we show that the relative polarization configurations of the XUV and IR fields allow for disentangling the contributions of bound and continuum states to the chiral response. Our proposal provides a simple, robust, and versatile tool for the control of photoelectron circular dichroism and experimentally feasible protocol for probing the individual contributions of bound and continuum states to the photoelectron circular dichroism in a time-resolved manner.
The present status and future expectations of four satellite tracking systems, satellite-to-satellite tracking, lasers, very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) and geoceiver are briefly discussed.