Aerodynamics and Performance Flight Research and Airworthiness Best Practices
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Aerodynamic comparisons of STS-1 Space Shuttle entry vehicle
A conventional flight-test program, which slowly and cautiously approaches more severe flight conditions, was not possible with the Orbiter. On the first flight, the Orbiter entered the atmosphere at Mach 28 and decelerated through the Mach range. (The subsonic portion of flight was also flown by another orbiter vehicle during the Approach and Landing Test Program.) Certification for the first flight was achieved by an extensive wind-tunnel test and analysis program and by restricting the flight maneuvers severely. The initial flights of the orbiter were heavily instrumented for the purpose of obtaining accurate aerodynamic data. Even without maneuvers to excite the system, the first flight provided comparisons between flight and wind-tunnel-derived predicted data in the areas of aerodynamic performance, longitudinal trim, and reaction-control jet interaction. The aerodynamic performance comparisons are presented.
Young, J. C.↗
Effects of Unsteady Flow Interactions on the Performance of a Highly-Loaded Transonic Compressor Stage
Effects of unsteady flow interactions on the aerodynamic performance of a highly-loaded transonic axial compressor are investigated in the present study. The primary focus of the study is to investigate how unsteady flow interactions between blade rows affect the aerodynamic performance of a highly-loaded transonic axial compressor. Recent experimental and numerical studies of current highly-loaded axial compressor performance indicated that predicting calculating the loss generation is very challenging with various analysis tools. In the present study, the effects of generation and transport of shock induced vortices on the compressor performance is investigated in detail.
Stall↗
An Attached Flow Design of a Noninterferring Leading Edge Extension to a Thick Delta Wing
An analytical procedure for the determination of the shape of a Leading-Edge Extension (LEE) which satisfies design criteria, including especially noninterference at the wing design point, has been developed for thick delta wings. The LEE device best satisfying all criteria is designed to be mounted on a wing along a dividing stream surface associated with an attached flow design lift coefficient (C L,d ) of greater than zero. This device is intended to improve the aerodynamic performance of transonic aircraft at C L greater than C L,d system emanating from the LEE leading edge. In order to quantify this process a twisted and cambered thick delta wing was chosen for the initial application of this design procedure. Appropriate computer codes representing potential and vortex flows were employed to determine the dividing stream surface at C L,d and an optimized LEE planform shape at C L greater than C L,d , respectively. To aid in the LEE selection, the aerodynamic effectiveness of 36 planforms was investigated at C L greater than C L,d . This study showed that reducing the span of the candidate LEEs has the most detrimental effect on overall aerodynamic efficiency, regardless of the shape or area. Furthermore, for a fixed area, constant-chord LEE candidates were relatively more efficient than those with sweep less than the wing. At C L,d , the presence of the LEE planform best satisfying the design criteria was found to have no effect on the wing alone aerodynamic performance.
Leading edge extension↗
Circulation control propellers for general aviation, including a BASIC computer program
The feasibility of replacing variable pitch propeller mechanisms with circulation control (Coanada effect) propellers on general aviation airplanes was examined. The study used a specially developed computer program written in BASIC which could compare the aerodynamic performance of circulation control propellers with conventional propellers. The comparison of aerodynamic performance for circulation control, fixed pitch and variable pitch propellers is based upon the requirements for a 1600 kg (3600 lb) single engine general aviation aircraft. A circulation control propeller using a supercritical airfoil was shown feasible over a representative range of design conditions. At a design condition for high speed cruise, all three types of propellers showed approximately the same performance. At low speed, the performance of the circulation control propeller exceeded the performance for a fixed pitch propeller, but did not match the performance available from a variable pitch propeller. It appears feasible to consider circulation control propellers for single engine aircraft or multiengine aircraft which have their propellers on a common axis (tractor pusher). The economics of the replacement requires a study for each specific airplane application.
Taback, I.↗
Performance of an optimized rotor blade at off-design flight conditions
An investigation is made of the dynamic and aerodynamic performance of a helicopter rotor previously optimized for minimum 4/rev vertical shear and blade weight subject to certain dynamic and structural constraints. The program CAMRAD which was used in designing the optimized blade is used for both dynamic and aerodynamic analaysis. The behavior of the optimized rotor is analyzed over a wide range of operating conditions and for a larger number of rotor characteristics than those considered in designing the blade. To assess the dynamic behavior, the blade root vibratory shears and moments that are transmitted to the rotor hub are calculated. The aerodynamic performance assessments are made based on the power required by the rotor for a given rotor task, the rotor lifting efficiencies, maximum rotor thrust envelopes and the control margins. Results are presented for the optimized blade and the control margins. Results are presented for the optimized blade and the reference blade, which was used as the baseline for the optimized blade, for two rotor tasks.
Chattopadhyay, Aditi↗
Performance of an optimized rotor blade at off-design flight conditions
An investigation is made of the dynamic and aerodynamic performance of a helicopter rotor previously optimized for minimum 4/rev vertical shear and blade weight subject to certain dynamic and structural constraints. The program CAMRAD which was used in designing the optimized blade is used for both dynamic and aerodynamic analysis. The behavior of the optimized rotor is analyzed over a wide range of operating conditions and for a larger number rotor characteristics than those considered in designing the blade. To assess the dynamic behavior, the blade root vibratory shears and moments that are transmitted to the rotor hub are calculated. The aerodynamic performance assessments are made based on the power required by the rotor for a given rotor task, the rotor lifting efficiencies, maximum rotor thrust envelopes and the control margins. Results are presented for the optimized blade and the reference blade which was used as the baseline for the optimized blade, for two rotor tasks.
Chattopadhyay, Aditi↗
Preliminary structural design of composite main rotor blades for minimum weight
A methodology is developed to perform minimum weight structural design for composite or metallic main rotor blades subject to aerodynamic performance, material strength, autorotation, and frequency constraints. The constraints and load cases are developed such that the final preliminary rotor design will satisfy U.S. Army military specifications, as well as take advantage of the versatility of composite materials. A minimum weight design is first developed subject to satisfying the aerodynamic performance, strength, and autorotation constraints for all static load cases. The minimum weight design is then dynamically tuned to avoid resonant frequencies occurring at the design rotor speed. With this methodology, three rotor blade designs were developed based on the geometry of the UH-60A Black Hawk titanium-spar rotor blade. The first design is of a single titanium-spar cross section, which is compared with the UH-60A Black Hawk rotor blade. The second and third designs use single and multiple graphite/epoxy-spar cross sections. These are compared with the titanium-spar design to demonstrate weight savings from use of this design methodology in conjunction with advanced composite materials.
Nixon, Mark W.↗
Wind tunnel performance results of an aeroelastically scaled 2/9 model of the PTA flight test prop-fan
High speed wind tunnel aerodynamic performance tests of the SR-7A advanced prop-fan have been completed in support of the Prop-Fan Test Assessment (PTA) flight test program. The test showed that the SR-7A model performed aerodynamically very well. At the cruise design condition, the SR-7A prop fan had a high measured net efficiency of 79.3 percent.
Stefko, George L.↗
Wind tunnel performance results of an aeroelastically scaled 2/9 model of the PTA flight test prop-fan
High speed wind tunnel aerodynamic performance tests of the SR-7A advanced prop-fan have been completed in support of the Prop-Fan Test Assessment (PTA) flight test program. The test showed that the SR-7A model performed aerodynamically very well. At the cruise design condition, the SR-7A prop fan had a high measured net efficiency of 79.3 percent.
Stefko, George L.↗
Large-scale Advanced Prop-fan (LAP) high speed wind tunnel test report
High Speed Wind Tunnel testing of the SR-7L Large Scale Advanced Prop-Fan (LAP) is reported. The LAP is a 2.74 meter (9.0 ft) diameter, 8-bladed tractor type rated for 4475 KW (6000 SHP) at 1698 rpm. It was designated and built by Hamilton Standard under contract to the NASA Lewis Research Center. The LAP employs thin swept blades to provide efficient propulsion at flight speeds up to Mach .85. Testing was conducted in the ONERA S1-MA Atmospheric Wind Tunnel in Modane, France. The test objectives were to confirm that the LAP is free from high speed classical flutter, determine the structural and aerodynamic response to angular inflow, measure blade surface pressures (static and dynamic) and evaluate the aerodynamic performance at various blade angles, rotational speeds and Mach numbers. The measured structural and aerodynamic performance of the LAP correlated well with analytical predictions thereby providing confidence in the computer prediction codes used for the design. There were no signs of classical flutter throughout all phases of the test up to and including the 0.84 maximum Mach number achieved. Steady and unsteady blade surface pressures were successfully measured for a wide range of Mach numbers, inflow angles, rotational speeds and blade angles. No barriers were discovered that would prevent proceeding with the PTA (Prop-Fan Test Assessment) Flight Test Program scheduled for early 1987.
Campbell, William A.↗
Applications of Flow Control to Wing High-Lift Leading Edge Devices on a Commercial Aircraft
Active flow control was applied to the leading edge region of a representative future short/medium-range twin-engine airplane to improve aerodynamic performance during high-lift operations. The study is aimed at enhanced lift over the practical angle of attack range, including stall, and at reduced drag. These benefits translate to airplane performance improvements, such as longer range or larger payload. Various flow control applications were explored using Computational Fluid Dynamics and the aerodynamic performance enhancements were benchmarked against the baseline configuration. The computational analyses are used to quantify aerodynamic benefits, as well as the input required for actuation. The results were used in a system integration study for identifying potential practical implementations, which are described in a companion paper. Combined with the integration analysis, the objective of this project is to identify the most promising flow control candidates that potentially provide material net airplane level enhancements using onboard fluidic sources. Depending on the implementation of active flow control, the current study indicates that up to 1.5% net improvement in L/D at takeoff and 4% increase in maximum lift during landing are potentially achievable, after accounting for factors of system integration.
CFD↗
Flow Control for Enhanced Aileron Effectiveness on a Commercial Aircraft
Active flow control was applied to the ailerons of a representative future short/medium-range twin-engine airplane to improve aerodynamic performance during high-lift operations. The study is aimed at reduced drag and enhanced lift over the range of practical angles of attack, including stall. These benefits translate to airplane performance improvements, such as longer range or larger payload. Various flow control techniques were explored using Computational Fluid Dynamics and the aerodynamic performance enhancements were benchmarked against the baseline configuration. The computational analyses are used to quantify aerodynamic benefits, as well as the input required for actuation. The results were used in a system integration study for identifying potential practical implementations, which are described in a companion paper. Combined with the integration analysis, the objective of this project is to identify the most promising flow control candidates that potentially provide material net airplane level enhancements using onboard fluidic sources. The current study indicates that up to 5% net improvement in L/D at takeoff is potentially achievable using active flow control on the aileron, after accounting for factors of system integration.
CFD↗
Design Methodology for Multi-Element High-Lift Systems on Subsonic Civil Transport Aircraft
The choice of a high-lift system is crucial in the preliminary design process of a subsonic civil transport aircraft. Its purpose is to increase the allowable aircraft weight or decrease the aircraft's wing area for a given takeoff and landing performance. However, the implementation of a high-lift system into a design must be done carefully, for it can improve the aerodynamic performance of an aircraft but may also drastically increase the aircraft empty weight. If designed properly, a high-lift system can improve the cost effectiveness of an aircraft by increasing the payload weight for a given takeoff and landing performance. This is why the design methodology for a high-lift system should incorporate aerodynamic performance, weight, and cost. The airframe industry has experienced rapid technological growth in recent years which has led to significant advances in high-lift systems. For this reason many existing design methodologies have become obsolete since they are based on outdated low Reynolds number wind-tunnel data and can no longer accurately predict the aerodynamic characteristics or weight of current multi-element wings. Therefore, a new design methodology has been created that reflects current aerodynamic, weight, and cost data and provides enough flexibility to allow incorporation of new data when it becomes available.
Pepper, R. S.↗
Performance and aerodynamic braking of a horizontal-axis wind turbine from small-scale wind tunnel tests
Wind tunnel tests of three 20" diameter, zero twist, zero pitch wind turbine rotor models were conducted in a 7' x 10' wind tunnel to determine the performance of such rotors with NACA 23024 and NACA 64 sub 3-621 airfoil sections. Aerodynamic braking characteristics of a 38% span, 30% chord, vented aileron configuration were measured on the NACA 23024 rotor. Surface flow patterns were observed using fluorescent mini-tufts attached to the suction side of the rotor blades. Experimental results with and without ailerons are compared to predictions using airfoil section data and a momentum performance code. Results of the performance studies show that the 64 sub 3-621 rotor produces higher peak power than the 23024 rotor for a given rotor speed. Analytical studies, however, indicate that the 23024 should produce higher power. Transition strip experiments show that the 23024 rotor is much more sensitive to roughness than the 64 sub 3-621 rotor. These trends agree with analytical predictions. Results of the aileron test show that this aileron, when deflected, produces a braking torque at all tip speed ratios. In free wheeling coastdowns the rotor blade stopped, then rotated backward at a tip speed ratio of -0.6.
Cao, H. V.↗
A comprehensive method for preliminary design optimization of axial gas turbine stages. II - Code verification
The present effort represents an extension of previous work wherein a calculation model for performing rapid pitchline optimization of axial gas turbine geometry, including blade profiles, is developed. The model requires no specification of geometric constraints. Output includes aerodynamic performance (adiabatic efficiency), hub-tip flow-path geometry, blade chords, and estimates of blade shape. Presented herein is a verification of the aerodynamic performance portion of the model, whereby detailed turbine test-rig data, including rig geometry, is input to the model to determine whether tested performance can be predicted. An array of seven (7) NASA single-stage axial gas turbine configurations is investigated, ranging in size from 0.6 kg/s to 63.8 kg/s mass flow and in specific work output from 153 J/g to 558 J/g at design (hot) conditions; stage loading factor ranges from 1.15 to 4.66.
Jenkins, R. M.↗
Interpretation of waverider performance data using computational fluid dynamics
A computational study was conducted to better understand experimental results obtained from wind-tunnel tests of a Mach 4 conical-flow-derived waverider and a comparative reference configuration, which showed that the aerodynamic performance of the reference configuration was slightly better than that of the waverider. The computational results showed that the predicted surface pressure values and the integrated lift and drag coefficients were much lower for the reference model because the reference model bottom is an expansion surface. However, the lift-drag ratios for the reference model were higher due to a relatively low drag for a comparable amount of lift. The results also showed that the reference model exhibited the same shock attachment characteristics as the conical-flow-derived waverider, and is therefore also a waverider. The shock attachment characteristic gives the waverider a performance advantage over conventional hypersonic vehicles, and the results suggest that altering the bottom surface does not cause significant performance degradation. Flowfield solutions also show that the conical-flow waverider model has better propulsion/airframe integration characteristics than the reference configuration. The results also suggest that generating flowfields other than conical ones may be used to design waveriders with improved aerodynamic performance.
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS↗
Optimum Design of High-Speed Prop-Rotors
An integrated multidisciplinary optimization procedure is developed for application to rotary wing aircraft design. The necessary disciplines such as dynamics, aerodynamics, aeroelasticity, and structures are coupled within a closed-loop optimization process. The procedure developed is applied to address two different problems. The first problem considers the optimization of a helicopter rotor blade and the second problem addresses the optimum design of a high-speed tilting proprotor. In the helicopter blade problem, the objective is to reduce the critical vibratory shear forces and moments at the blade root, without degrading rotor aerodynamic performance and aeroelastic stability. In the case of the high-speed proprotor, the goal is to maximize the propulsive efficiency in high-speed cruise without deteriorating the aeroelastic stability in cruise and the aerodynamic performance in hover. The problems studied involve multiple design objectives; therefore, the optimization problems are formulated using multiobjective design procedures. A comprehensive helicopter analysis code is used for the rotary wing aerodynamic, dynamic and aeroelastic stability analyses and an algorithm developed specifically for these purposes is used for the structural analysis. A nonlinear programming technique coupled with an approximate analysis procedure is used to perform the optimization. The optimum blade designs obtained in each case are compared to corresponding reference designs.
Chattopadhyay, Aditi↗