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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 253 records · Page 14

Predicting Pulsed-Laser Deposition SrTiO 3 Homoepitaxy Growth Dynamics Using High-Speed Reflection High-Energy Electron Diffraction

Pulsed-laser deposition (PLD) is a powerful technique for growing complex oxides with controlled stoichiometry. To understand growth dynamics therein, it is common to leverage in situ spectroscopies, such as reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED), to monitor surface crystallinity. Most commercial systems rely on video-rate cameras operating at 60-120 Hz that lack sufficient temporal resolution to capture growth dynamics at practical deposition frequencies. Here, a high-speed platform to record in situ dynamics via RHEED at >500 Hz is implemented. An open-source analysis package is designed to fit diffraction spots to 2D Gaussians, allowing single-pulse surface reconstruction kinetics extraction. Using homoepitaxially deposited (001)-oriented SrTiO 3 as a model system, we demonstrate how high-speed RHEED can provide real-time insight into growth processes obscured by slower acquisition systems. By fitting the single-pulse intensity to a set of exponential functions, we observe changes in the characteristic decay time and mechanism correlated to the substrate step width and surface termination. We observe distinct surface effects, with diffraction intensity decaying on lower-energy TiO 2 -terminated surfaces and stabilizing on SrO- or mixed-terminated surfaces. Similarly, using an exponential model, the extracted characteristic time of adatom deposition decreases with increased density of bonding sites associated with mixed termination and narrower step widths. Ultimately, this work shows how increasing RHEED temporal resolution can uncover new insights into growth processes, with practical implications for the design and control of PLD processes. This experimental platform provides new capabilities to enable data-driven machine learning analysis and autonomous control systems to enhance the complexity and fecundity of PLD.

(SrO)↗

Methane fluxes in tidal marshes of the conterminous United States

Abstract Methane (CH 4 ) is a potent greenhouse gas (GHG) with atmospheric concentrations that have nearly tripled since pre‐industrial times. Wetlands account for a large share of global CH 4 emissions, yet the magnitude and factors controlling CH 4 fluxes in tidal wetlands remain uncertain. We synthesized CH 4 flux data from 100 chamber and 9 eddy covariance (EC) sites across tidal marshes in the conterminous United States to assess controlling factors and improve predictions of CH 4 emissions. This effort included creating an open‐source database of chamber‐based GHG fluxes ( https://doi.org/10.25573/serc.14227085 ). Annual fluxes across chamber and EC sites averaged 26 ± 53 g CH 4 m −2 year −1 , with a median of 3.9 g CH 4 m −2 year −1 , and only 25% of sites exceeding 18 g CH 4 m −2 year −1 . The highest fluxes were observed at fresh‐oligohaline sites with daily maximum temperature normals (MATmax) above 25.6°C. These were followed by frequently inundated low and mid‐fresh‐oligohaline marshes with MATmax ≤25.6°C, and mesohaline sites with MATmax >19°C. Quantile regressions of paired chamber CH 4 flux and porewater biogeochemistry revealed that the 90th percentile of fluxes fell below 5 ± 3 nmol m −2 s −1 at sulfate concentrations >4.7 ± 0.6 mM, porewater salinity >21 ± 2 psu, or surface water salinity >15 ± 3 psu. Across sites, salinity was the dominant predictor of annual CH 4 fluxes, while within sites, temperature, gross primary productivity (GPP), and tidal height controlled variability at diel and seasonal scales. At the diel scale, GPP preceded temperature in importance for predicting CH 4 flux changes, while the opposite was observed at the seasonal scale. Water levels influenced the timing and pathway of diel CH 4 fluxes, with pulsed releases of stored CH 4 at low to rising tide. This study provides data and methods to improve tidal marsh CH 4 emission estimates, support blue carbon assessments, and refine national and global GHG inventories.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

Visualizing and analyzing 3D biomolecular structures using Mol* at RCSB.org: Influenza A H5N1 virus proteome case study

The easiest and often most useful way to work with experimentally determined or computationally predicted structures of biomolecules is by viewing their three-dimensional (3D) shapes using a molecular visualization tool. Mol* was collaboratively developed by RCSB Protein Data Bank (RCSB PDB, RCSB.org) and Protein Data Bank in Europe (PDBe, PDBe.org) as an open-source, web-based, 3D visualization software suite for examination and analyses of biostructures. It is capable of displaying atomic coordinates and related experimental data of biomolecular structures together with a variety of annotations, facilitating basic and applied research, training, education, and information dissemination. Across RCSB.org, the RCSB PDB research-focused web portal, Mol* has been implemented to support single-mouse-click atomic-level visualization of biomolecules (e.g., proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates) with bound cofactors, small-molecule ligands, ions, water molecules, or other macromolecules. RCSB.org Mol* can seamlessly display 3D structures from various sources, allowing structure interrogation, superimposition, and comparison. Using influenza A H5N1 virus as a topical case study of an important pathogen, we exemplify how Mol* has been embedded within various RCSB.org tools—allowing users to view polymer sequence and structure-based annotations integrated from trusted bioinformatics data resources, assess patterns and trends in groups of structures, and view structures of any size and compositional complexity. In addition to being linked to every experimentally determined biostructure and Computed Structure Model made available at RCSB.org, Standalone Mol* is freely available for visualizing any atomic-level or multi-scale biostructure at rcsb.org/3d-view.

3D biostructure↗

Recent Developments in DFTB+, a Software Package for Efficient Atomistic Quantum Mechanical Simulations

DFTB+ is a flexible, open-source software package developed by its community, designed for fast and efficient atomistic quantum mechanical simulations. It employs various methods that approximate density functional theory (DFT), such as density functional-based tight binding (DFTB) and the extended tight binding (xTB) approach allowing simulations of large systems over extended time scales with reasonable accuracy, while being significantly faster than traditional ab initio methods. In recent years, several new extensions of the DFTB method have been developed and implemented in the DFTB+ program package in order to improve the accuracy and generality of the available simulation results. In this paper, we review those enhancements, show several use case examples and discuss the strengths and limitations of its features.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

node-red-contrib-ocpp2

Open source Node-Red "nodes" to support the Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) 2.0.1 protocol.

Nystrom, Bryan↗

From Modular ADMS to Plug-and-Play Ops: Distribution Grid Operations with Platform-Level Orchestration to Enable Ambitious App Hosting

The core function of the distribution grid is to provide electricity to consumers affordably, reliably, and securely. In pursuing these core objectives, distribution utilities are accountable to customers, regulators, and in some cases, shareholders. Other third parties such as aggregators and microgrids can also have a stake in the smooth operation of the grid. Each of these stakeholders has economic, business, and/or governance objectives that inform their expectations of the distribution grid. This multi-objective, multi-stakeholder environment creates tension that must be reconciled to successfully design and operate the distribution grid. Innovative companies are competing to bring high-tech solutions to electric utilities and their customers that address each of these objectives. Many developers of advanced distribution management systems (ADMS) and distributed energy resource management systems (DERMS) have adopted a modular architecture that allows grid operators to select functions and features according to their individual system needs. A modular platform also allows the solution provider to develop and integrate specific new product modules; however, the need to pursue multiple objectives with a fixed set of controllable devices makes integration expensive whether it is done at the product development stage or the deployment stage. This cost creates a significant barrier to adoption and can lengthen the product to market time of new solutions. To fundamentally address the complexity of system integration for distribution grid operations, the U.S. Department of Energy Office of Electricity has funded the GridAPPS-D project at PNNL, which streamlines integration by contributing to standards development, defining system architecture, applying advanced mathematics, and developing open-source software to demonstrate the concept of an open data-integration platform for distribution operations. The open data-integration platform concept enables system operators and solution providers to deploy ambitious, best-of-breed applications (or apps) without continually reengineering for integration. Ambitious apps developed by different solution providers will inevitably attempt to achieve different control objectives with the same set of controllable devices. If the open platform itself can resolve these conflicts in a way that achieves the best available outcomes for all apps, doesn’t restrict the ambitious design of apps, and ensures safe and secure operations, apps will be able to plug-and-play with the platform at the same time as other ambitious apps. In this paper, we describe a framework called App Deconfliction that empowers a platform to assign setpoints to controllable devices based on the values preferred by different apps (and even external stakeholder entities like customers or aggregators). The App Deconfliction framework is compatible with several methods for determining setpoint values. We present two methods based on game theory that provide a subtle built-in incentive structure for developers to adapt their apps to the fact that they will be operating in a moderated multi-app environment and to favor device setpoints that have the most effect on their objectives over those that have the least effect. Our simulation-based demonstrations have shown that game-theory-based deconfliction can lead to a 7% improvement in control space utilization compared to design-based methods.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

Retrofitting Holcim Ste. Genevieve Cement Plant with CO2 Capture Plant Using Air Liquide Cryocap™ FG Technology

The global cement manufacturing industry is a major contributor to carbon dioxide emissions. The International Energy Agency's "Net Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario" identifies CCS as a major strategy for meeting that goal. This project is among the first attempts to transfer capture technology developed at coal-fired power plants to the cement industry. The main objective of the project is to execute and complete a front-end engineering and design (FEED) studies for commercial-scale, carbon capture projects that separates 95% of the total CO2 emissions at the Holcim (US) Ste. Genevieve cement manufacturing facility using Air Liquide’s Pressure Swing Adsorption system (PSA) assisted Cryocap™ technology. The Holcim Ste. Genevieve cement plant in Missouri, US, boasts one of the largest single cement production lines in the world, with a capacity of approximately 12,000 t/day. The plant currently uses traditional fuels, namely coal and petcoke. The captured CO2 will be pipeline and geological storage grade. The industrial host site emits approximately 3.0 million tonne CO2/yr. Air Liquide’s Cryocap™ technology has been developed over the last 18+ years for CO2 capture applications. It has been shown to be applicable to a variety of industrial applications (e.g., steel, cement, SMR, Fluidized Catalytic Crackers (FCCs)). Cryocap™ FG consists of a Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) unit coupled with a Cryogenic System. The PSA pre-concentrates the CO2 from the flue gas, while the cryogenic unit enables the CO2 purity to be increased to the desired level. The project team is led by the Prairie Research Institute at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The tasks include: complete FEED study for retrofitting the industrial facility with a carbon capture system to support developing a detailed cost estimate; business case analysis outlining the anticipated revenue and credits if projects was built and operated; technoeconomic analysis (TEA) outlining how capture system achieves DOE capture goals; and life cycle (LCA) analysis demonstrating zero net carbon emissions. The FEED study was successfully completed. This includes completing the process basis of design; preliminary engineering; outside battery limits (OSBL) detailed engineering including a Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) wastewater treatment system; inside battery limits (ISBL) detailed engineering [1]. An overall project capital cost estimate within a -20%/+30% accuracy was developed. The major contributors to the Total Plant Cost (TPC), by system, are the costs associated with the Outside Battery Limit (OSBL) section of the plant which includes a new river water intake structure and a Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) system. By cost category, the major contributors to the TPC are equipment and subcontractor costs, followed closely by engineering, construction management, home office and contractor fees. The TEA has been created to reflect the findings of the project. It analyzes the economic performance of the Cryocap™ technology by reviewing the estimated capital costs, operating cost, and revenue. The Cost of Capture (COC) associated with the Cryocap™ technology for 95% CO2 capture, when considering NETL 2018 economic assumptions (42/58 debt/equity ratio, 5.15% interest on debt and 1.42% return on equity in real dollars) and 2022 economic assumptions (42/58 debt/equity ratio, 8.82% interest on debt and 4.90% return on equity in real dollars) was found to be much lower than that for the DOE-NETL’s base-line cases. The highest contributors to the COC are annualized capital expenditures (CAPEX) and electricity consumption which can be offset by using lower cost renewable sources. The LCA was conducted using OpenLCA which is an open-source software that is recommended by NETL. The database utilized for this study was a modified version of TRACI 2.1 (developed by the US. Environmental Protection Agency’s National Risk Management Research Laboratory and modified by NETL). The Cryocap™ FG technology does not consume fuels in significant quantities and does not utilize specialized chemical solvents subject to decomposition, such as those utilized in amine-based carbon capture systems. The Cryocap™ FG technology mainly utilizes electricity as its energy input; hence, its calculated emissions are mainly associated with the generation of electricity offsite and are dependent on the energy matrix of the grid at the time of project implementation. The water consumption impact of the Cryocap™ FG is mostly for makeup of the water lost by evaporation in the cooling tower; however, the carbon capture plant will be equipped with a ZLD system to avoid effluent streams and minimize water consumption. The successful construction and operation of this plant based on this study results will provide a means to demonstrate an economically attractive and transformational capture technology that can be used to retrofit existing plants and be deployed at new plants.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

Abbreviated Report for 25-FS-011: Switch and Stitch Similar Subgraph Synthesizer

Government institutions utilize software from a wide array of development sources, including those written by large software companies, government contractors, and open-source repositories. Avoiding installation of malicious software components is an important national security endeavor. Automated analysis of previously unseen software is an active research area, and there is much research in the design of systems that compare new software artifacts to a large set of previously seen software records organized by various behaviors they contain. One attractive approach is to turn each compiled software binary into a graph representation and apply a graph similarity model that scores pairs of binaries by their relative similarity. When a pair is deemed similar, it is useful to know why, in the sense of providing explanations to security analysts regarding which portions of the software they should look into further.

45 MILITARY TECHNOLOGY, WEAPONRY, AND NATIONAL DEF↗

Hybrid-Energy-Powered Electrochemical Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement Model: Plant Operation, Cost, and Profitability

Electrochemical ocean alkalinity enhancement is a form of marine carbon dioxide removal, a rapidly growing industry that is powered by efficient onshore or offshore energy sources. As more and larger deployments are being planned, it is important to consider how variable energy sources like tidal energy can impact plant performance and costs. An open-source Python-based generalizable model for electrodialysis-based ocean alkalinity enhancement has been developed that can capture key system-level insights of the electrochemistry, ocean chemistry, acid disposal, and co-product creation of these plants under various conditions. The model additionally accounts for hybrid energy system performance profiles and costs via the National Laboratory of the Rockies’ H2Integrate tool. The model was used to analyze an example theoretical plant deployment in North Admiralty Inlet, including how the plant is impacted by the available energy sources in the region and the scale at which plant costs are covered by the co-products it generates, such as recycled concrete aggregates, without requiring carbon credits. The results show that the example plant could be profitable without carbon credits at commercial scales of 100,000 to 1 million tons of carbon dioxide removal per year, so long as it uses low-cost electricity sources and either sells acid or recovers recycled concrete aggregates with about 1 molar acid concentrations, though more research is needed to confirm these results.

hybrid energy↗

Computational toolkit for predicting thickness of 2D materials using machine learning and autogenerated dataset by large language model

The thickness of 2D materials not only plays a crucial role in determining the performance of nanoelectronic and optoelectronic devices but also introduces complexities in predicting volume-dependent properties, such as energy storage capacity, due to the intrinsic vacuum within these materials. Although a plethora of experimental techniques, including but not limited to optical contrast, Raman spectroscopy, nonlinear optical spectroscopy, near-field optical imaging, and hyperspectral imaging, facilitate the measurement of 2D material thickness, comprehensive data for many materials remain elusive. Over the past decade, the exponential proliferation of 2D materials and their heterostructures has outstripped the capabilities of conventional experimental and computational approaches. In this evolving landscape, machine learning (ML) has emerged as an indispensable tool, offering a scalable approach to augment these traditional methodologies. Addressing the critical gap, we introduce THICK2D—Thickness Hierarchy Inference and Calculation Kit for 2D Materials. This Python-based computational framework harnesses an autogenerated thickness database, developed using large language models, and advanced ML algorithms to facilitate the rapid and scalable estimation of material thickness, relying solely on crystallographic data. To demonstrate the utility and robustness of THICK2D, we successfully used the toolkit to predict the thickness of more than 8000 2D-based materials, sourced from two extensive 2D materials databases. THICK2D is disseminated as an open-source utility, accessible on GitHub at https://github.com/gmp007/THICK2D, and archived on Zenodo at https://10.5281/zenodo.11216648.

Ekuma, Chinedu E. (ORCID:0000000258527556)↗

An Image-Plane Approach to Gravitational Lens Modeling of Interferometric Data

Strong gravitational lensing acts as a cosmic telescope, enabling the study of the high-redshift universe. Astronomical interferometers, such as the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), have provided high-resolution images of strongly lensed sources at millimeter and submillimeter wavelengths. To model the mass and light distributions of lensing and source galaxies from strongly lensed images, strong lens modeling for interferometric observations is conventionally performed in the visibility space, which is computationally expensive. In this paper, we implement an image-plane lens modeling methodology for interferometric dirty images by accounting for noise correlations. We show that the image-plane likelihood function produces accurate model values when tested on simulated ALMA observations with an ensemble of noise realizations. We also apply our technique to ALMA observations of two sources selected from the South Pole Telescope survey, comparing our results with previous visibility-based models. Our model results are consistent with previous models for both parametric and pixelated source-plane reconstructions. We implement this methodology for interferometric lens modeling in the open-source software package lenstronomy.

Zhang, Nan [Illinois U., Urbana (main)] (ORCID:000↗

BASIN-3D Data Integration for Selected ARM Data Field Campaign Report

The purpose of this data services request was to demonstrate integration of the Atmospheric Radiation Measurement (ARM) User Facility’s “met” datastreams with time series data from other earth science data sources using the BASIN-3D data synthesis software tool. BASIN-3D is an open-source Python library that enables researchers to integrate data across configured public and private data sources. It provides a common query language for researchers to request measurement locations and time series data based on specified locations, variables, time period, statistics, aggregation, and data quality. BASIN-3D acquires the data that match the query from each configured data source and translates the results into harmonized vocabularies, thus reducing researchers' data-wrangling effort. In addition, because the queries are executed on demand, researchers can easily regenerate their synthesized data sets as new data and/or data updates become available, eliminating one-off data products. BASIN-3D can output data using a variety of different data structures for end-user applications including Python pandas data frames and hdf5 output formats.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗

Compound flood simulations indicate rising public exposure to sewage-contaminated waters in Waikīkī, Hawai‘i

Waikīkī, Hawai‘i serves as a valuable case study for flood vulnerability due to its low elevation, present-day exposure to multiple flood sources, and role as the state’s economic engine. This study applies the high-resolution, open-source WRF-Hydro-CUFA (Coastal Urban Flood Application) model to simulate compound flood interactions among pluvial, fluvial, coastal, storm drain-driven, and subsurface processes, and to evaluate how flood characteristics in Waikīkī evolve under projected sea-level rise (SLR). Simulated water levels in an estuarine drainage canal, serving as the primary outlet for gravity-flow drainage from Waikīkī, show strong agreement with observations (r ≥ 0.935, R 2 ≥ 0.874), accurately reproducing flooding observed during recent 5-year and 50-year storm events. Simulations incorporating SLR demonstrate a shift in dominant flood drivers as sea levels rise. In addition, results identify critical thresholds at which elevated estuarine tailwater conditions cause widespread drainage backflow, eventually occurring in the absence of rainfall. These findings suggest that tidally driven flooding will progressively dominate over rainfall-driven events, increasing public exposure to highly contaminated canal and groundwater sources. The results underscore the urgent need to integrate water quality issues and drainage failure into coastal flood management strategies for low-lying urban environments, particularly those reliant on polluted estuarine waterways for stormwater management.

Compound flooding↗

Introduction to Engage: NASA Training Session

Welcome to Engage! Engage is a capacity expansion modeling tool supported by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory and based on the Calliope open-source capacity expansion model developed by the ETH Zurich University, maintained at the TU Delft University. Engage is an accessible (free, open-access, web-hosted) and flexible web-based energy system planning application for rapid multiple-energy-form energy system scenario exploration. Its cloud-based, collaborator-sharable data model, intuitive interface and visualization capabilities facilitate collaboration and communication among teams, with experts, and among diverse stakeholder groups exploring energy system implications from district to national-scale models. This training session was presented to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to help them understand how capacity expansion modeling can help them develop single site/distribution analysis of energy to regional airports.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

Using Gravitational Lensing to Probe for Candidate Quintessential Galaxies in the Epoch of Reionization

Abstract Understanding the properties of the first generation of galaxies is an ongoing challenge in observational astrophysics. James Webb Space Telescope deep-field observations have led to the identification of large numbers of galaxies within the Epoch of Reionization (EoR); however, it remains observationally challenging to study the detailed properties of the most numerous, faint high- z galaxies without strong gravitational lensing. To this end, we present five m AB ≃ 24 galaxies, all projected behind the cores of massive clusters where high lensing magnifications significantly (≳1.5 mag) boost their observed brightness. These galaxies are each characterized by a drop-off in their spectra between the near-IR and optical wavelengths, suggesting the presence of a Lyman break at z > 6. The bright sources enable precise dropout color constraints. We combine the dropout data with follow-up imaging to constrain continuum slopes redward of their breaks. Using the open-source spectral energy distribution modeling software Prospector , we characterize two of these galaxies as probable high- z ( z ∼ 6.5–7) and three as probable low- z ( z ∼ 2) sources, demonstrating that for very bright ( m AB < 24) dropout candidates even limited photometric data have good power to distinguish between high- z galaxies and red or dusty low- z galaxies. The two candidate high- z dropouts are comparably bright to the brightest galaxies identified at such redshifts in deep fields, but due to lensing magnifications are intrinsically fainter by at least 1.5 mag. If confirmed, these galaxies represent exciting laboratories for performing detailed follow-up studies of galaxy properties within the EoR.

Roberson, Joshua [University of Cincinnati] (ORCID↗

Modeling the contributions to acoustic nonlinearity from complex dislocation networks using 3D dislocation dynamics

Nonlinear ultrasonic parameters are highly sensitive to microstructural features that affect macroscale material behavior, providing a nondestructive means to characterize their evolution. Although dislocations are known to be a strong source of acoustic nonlinearity, establishing quantitative links between the acoustic nonlinearity parameter (β), measured via Second Harmonic Generation, and dislocation morphology—such as dislocation length and density—remains an open challenge. This work advances the numerical modeling of dislocation–β relationships using 3D dislocation dynamics (DD) simulations in two approaches: a “static” method computing strain and stress fields from dislocation configurations in the absence of external loading, and a “quasi-static” method to estimate β from the curvature of dislocation lines under applied load. First, the static method is combined with finite element analysis to investigate a recent assertion that heterogeneous initial strain fields can induce higher harmonic generation in a linear elastic medium; the present results do not corroborate this outcome. Then, the quasi-static method is applied to multiple-dislocation scenarios through parametric studies, revealing behaviors not predicted by analytical models, such as the competing interactions of edge and screw dislocations and the significant influence of applied stress on β. Finally, the simulations are used to model SHG experimental results and validate the hypothesis that β can decrease during plastic deformation, despite increasing dislocation density. As the DD code used here is open-source, it provides a practical platform for future investigation into microstructure–β relationships important to the interpretation of SHG results.

Materials science↗

Technical Bulletin 005: NTP Monitoring

The Center for Alternative Synchronization and Timing (CAST) views Precision Time Protocol (PTP) and Network Time Protocol (NTP) as critical elements of the grid, from generation to the grid edge. This tech bulletin discusses the operation of NTP. The document shows not only commercial but also open-source applications. In some cases, the commercial applications may already have existing feature sets to secure and monitor NTP streams. From a security standpoint, using subscription NTP is risky unless the open bidirectional ports on local firewalls and routers are properly monitored and controlled.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗

useeio-infra-app

This GitHub repository hosts the source code to an RShiny web application that implements the U.S. Environmentally-Extended Input-Output (USEEIO) model in order to conduct a screening-level life cycle analysis. The USEEIO model is an open-source model developed and maintained by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), along with colleagues and contractors, and is available on GitHub (https://github.com/USEPA/USEEIO). The USEEIO model incorporates environmental data into pre-existing Economic Input-Output Models, which look at the interdependence of different economic industries. In this web application, the focus is on energy infrastructure applications; however, it can be used to implement USEEIO in any area for which this model is applicable.

AS↗