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DOE OSTI2021

Opportunities and Challenges for Nuclear-Renewable Hybrid Energy Systems

Nuclear-renewable hybrid energy systems (also known as integrated nuclear-renewable systems) are conceptual systems that have two or more energy inputs and produce two or more products. They maximize profitability, and usually equipment utilization, by adjusting between the products depending upon the availability of resources and market value. For example a nuclear-renewable hybrid energy system that produces electricity and hydrogen would maximize sales of electricity when its price is high and shift to hydrogen production when the electricity price is low. This presentation summarizes the results of several economic analyses of nuclear-renewable hybrid energy systems and they key overall conclusions from those analyses.

economic analysis↗

DOE OSTI2021

Markets and Economic Requirements for Fission Batteries and Other Nuclear Systems

Fission Batteries (FBs) are nuclear reactors defined by five characteristics which enable large-scale deployment: cost competitive, standardized sizes for economic mass production, easy installation and removal, secure and safe unattended operation with high reliability. FBs are not defined by technology or power level. Technical and market considerations suggest that most FBs will produce 20 to 30 MWt. This proceedings reports on the outcomes of two workshops that were held in January 2021 to better define markets and economic challenges for FBs. Three major markets were identified. The largest market is the industrial and commercial heat market. There are about 4000 industrial users (excluding utilities) that require more than one megawatt of heat. The number of customers versus size of heat demand was determined. In a low-carbon world there is the potential for many additional customers—including expanded biofuels production and district heat. The second market is for non-grid electricity. This includes co-generation plants that produce heat and electricity for a single customer. The third market is the maritime market with ~100,000 ships worldwide. In the United States, natural gas is the low-cost energy option today and will remain so unless constraints or taxes impact its use. If restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions, the FB competition includes natural gas with carbon capture, biofuels, hydrogen and grid electricity. Natural gas with carbon capture is not economically viable on a small scale. Biofuels may be expensive but may be the economically preferred option for locations with small energy demands of a few megawatts. Hydrogen is a potential competitor with many of the characteristics of natural gas. Grid electricity is not a competitive source of heat. For FBs to be economically competitive, the price of delivered heat must be $20-50/MWh ($6-15/million BTU). The economically competitive range for non-grid electricity is estimated at $70-100/MWh. These electricity prices are competitive with the retail prices of electricity in many parts of the United States for the customer. FBs are not expected to be competitive selling wholesale electricity to the grid. To achieve the aforementioned cost targets for heat and electricity markets, FB designers must (1) maximize the power output within the constraints of a FB (e.g., truck transportability, passive decay heat removal), (2) drastically reduce the size of onsite staff, (3) adopt core designs with low fuel costs (enrichment and fabrication), and (4) develop a system design that is efficiently manufactured in factories. The business case depends upon more than being just a replacement for natural gas. The largest incentives for adoption of FBs is where they create new markets and new sources of revenue. An example is the paper and pulp industry that burns biomass wastes to provide heat and electricity to make paper. An external heat source could meet the demand for heat and electricity by the paper process and enable converting waste biomass into liquid biofuels rather than burning to provide heat. Other markets, such as data centers, are driven by special energy requirements such as extreme reliability. Most customers are not in the energy business but need heat and electricity to produce a product—a manufactured good, education, retail sales (shopping malls), marine transport or some other product. As a consequence, there will be large incentives to lease rather than own FBs. Leasing avoids the regulatory challenges that remain with the owner of the FB. Leasing creates large incentives for FP standardization of sizes and transportability to maintain the value of the FB at the end of the lease—similar to the leasing of jet engines and aircraft. The economic constraints combined with technical constraints suggest competitive FBs will likely have outputs exceeding 10 MWt. There appear to be little incentives for very long-lived reactor cores because such machines require much larger inventories of fuel. Maintenance requirements and the options to provide technology updates may favor shorter lifetimes (~5 years). The assessment is that there is the potential for FBs to be economically viable and play a major role in global decarbonization in three markets: heat, non-grid electricity and maritime applications.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗

DOE OSTI2022

Long-term trends in connected thermostat performance

Internet-connected thermostats (CTs) control heating and cooling systems in about 30% of North American homes, and capture half of annual thermostat sales. In 2017 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency created a program to certify the performance of ENERGY STAR® Connected Thermostats. To demonstrate compliance with energy-saving criteria, thermostat vendors must submit performance summaries for a representative sample of up to 1250 homes. Vendors must then re-submit results from a new, representative sample every six months in order to maintain their ENERGY STAR certification. This procedure has created a unique record of each thermostat’s long-term performance in response to changes in weather, customer demographics, building stock, and algorithms. Our analysis covers submissions from 13 different vendors, who submitted data up to 7 times over four years. We found that these semi-annual samples generated relatively stable trends for comfort temperatures and Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning (HVAC) runtimes over the study period. However, some vendors achieved consistently more energy-conserving comfort temperatures and shorter HVAC runtimes than others. The most recent submission runtimes averaged 700 hours for heating and 1,300 hours for cooling, but some vendors achieved runtimes as much as 17% below the mean. This implies lower energy consumption is due in large part to more successful algorithms and control strategies used by those vendors.

Meier, Alan↗

DOE OSTI2022

EVSE Cybersecurity and Resilience

Consequence-driven Cybersecurity Analysis for Extreme Fast Charging Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Electric vehicle (EV) development and associated charging infrastructure are expected to advance rapidly. Thirty percent of all global vehicle sales may be EVs and hybrid EVs by 2025, and they will rely on increasingly sophisticated strategies for grid integration. Next-generation EV charging infrastructure is expected to include interconnected renewable resources, such as photovoltaic (PV) arrays and battery storage systems, along with grid-edge devices. Although distributed energy resources (DERs) are useful in several ways, such as peak shaving at high demand times and backup supply for added resilience, the integration of vehicle charging and DERs could create more avenues for cyberattack. Physical and/or remote access to EV charging station components, including charge ports, power electronics, controllers, and local generation (e.g., PV and energy storage) could be paths to cause power fluctuations, leading to altered operations at the charging station, escalated privileges to administrative systems, exfiltration of financial information (including personally identifiable information), and reduced grid stability. One compromised EV supply equipment component can open the door to a variety of exploitable vulnerabilities. Cloud computing and mobile application control have the potential to expand the threat surface to non-repudiation and firmware integrity challenges. Vendor clouds have access to hundreds of chargers, and if compromised, can scale the attack surface exponentially. The high power and voltage levels of xFC infrastructure (e.g., 400 kW at 1000- V DC) increase the hazards and ability to impact the grid and vehicles more than lower-power charging systems. Legacy communications systems and protocols could also put EV infrastructure at risk of cyberattacks requiring a robust patch management process. Communications networks link EVs and chargers to several stakeholders - including charging station operators, grid operators, vendors/manufacturers, and aggregators - who have both physical and network access to share information for control, monitoring, and analytics. Information in these networks that is vulnerable to compromise includes the state of charge, charging duration, payment information, electricity price, and load control. Analyzing and prioritizing these interconnections risks could help address cybersecurity related to data leakage and manipulation.

charging↗

DOE OSTI2020

Pushing Green: Leveraging Home Energy Score to Promote Deep-Energy Retrofits in Portland, Oregon

In the United States, 39% of total energy is consumed by the building sector, 20% of which is attributed to residential buildings. Older homes, built before 1992 when the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) Building Energy Codes Program was established, represent approximately 68% of residential building stock in the country and often have significant air leakage, inadequate insulation and inefficient heating & cooling systems. These older homes have long been the elephant in the room: how can programs effectively increase efficiency in all of the homes in need? Developed by DOE, the Home Energy Score was established to provide homeowners, buyers, and renters a comparable score measuring a home's energy use. Much like the MPG rating of automobiles, the Home Energy Score provides an overview of a residential building’s energy efficiency. In 2016, the City of Portland passed an ordinance requiring all residential properties to receive a Home Energy Score before being listed for sale, a mandate that was implemented January 1, 2018. Since 2018, more than 22,000 homes throughout the Portland Metro area have received Home Energy Scores (amounting to over 10% of Portland's single-family homes). This paper explores the sample of Home Energy Scores throughout Portland, including at the neighborhood level, identifies trends in efficiency measures, describes how the data has been used to date and proposes ways program administrators can use the Home Energy Score to increase the impact of energy efficiency programs on a city-scale.

Antonopoulos, Chrissi A.↗

DOE OSTI2022

U.S. Federal Policy Considerations for the Management of Retired Large-Format Batteries

The global demand for large-format batteries used in electric vehicles (EV) and battery energy storage is expected to continue as governments call for zero emission policies. Total installed large-scale stationary battery energy storage is expected to increase almost 20-fold in the coming years - from 17 GW installed globally in 2020 to 358 GW projected in 2030. Similarly, light duty EVs sales globally are expected to increase more than 8-fold from 2020 to 2030 - from 3 million units to 25 million units. The expected demand for large-format batteries brings supply chain concerns, and economic opportunities. Domestic reuse and recycling is one potential circular economy solution for large-format batteries. This presentation discusses current U.S. law and regulatory landscape for the reuse and recycling of large-format batteries, and how certain policy frameworks impact reuse and end-of-life management decisions for large-format battery materials.

battery↗

DOE OSTI2022

Solar and Storage Techno-Economic Analysis Tutorial for the IEEE Photovoltaic Specialist Conference (PVSC)

This tutorial will highlight the most recent efforts from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) to track solar photovoltaic (PV) technology trends and manufacturing costs, project levelized cost of electricity (LCOE), and project levelized cost of solar plus storage (LCOSS) for systems across the globe. We will begin with an overview of the global PV supply chain and 2021 benchmark input data for NREL's crystalline silicon (c-Si) and thin film PV module manufacturing cost models. The framework that we follow and will review during this tutorial provides a methodology to prepare bottom-up manufacturing cost models including the items within the U.S. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) and the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). For the polysilicon, wafer, cell conversion, and module assembly steps of the c-Si supply chain, and for thin film modules, we will review input data and methods useful for calculating the costs of goods sold (COGS); research and development (R&D) expenses; and sales, general, and business administration (S, G, &A) expenses. This 2021 benchmark analysis is compiled for state-of-the-art c-Si and thin film module manufacturing. We will also review methods for our 2021 system benchmark costs calculations and LCOE technoeconomic analysis of PV systems and solar plus storage systems. Next generation technologies that lower PV manufacturing and installation costs, reduce operations and maintenance (O&M) expenses, and improve system energy yield will also be highlighted. Techniques for comparing LCOE performance will also be reviewed. We look forward to sharing NREL's extensive work in these areas and discussing ideas for future directions.

cost models↗

DOE OSTI2022

The Chilling Effects of Administrative Burden on Efficiency Policy Uptake: Examining the Case of Federal ESAs

Utilizing policies and programs which incentivize energy efficiency or on-site renewables is difficult. The challenges and costs associated with researching these policies, interacting with their providers, and ensuring regulatory compliance can be collectively referred to as administrative burden. To better understand the impact of administrative burden on energy efficiency policies, we investigated the administrative burden associated with energy sales arrangements (ESA). ESAs are a contracting vehicle related to energy savings performance contracts where an energy services company designs and constructs a renewable energy system at a federal site, transferring ownership of those generating assets to the site after a 20-year term. We conducted a series of in-depth interviews with a variety of relevant ESA stakeholders, including federal project managers, subject matter experts, and energy service companies. We then augmented these interviews with a review of the relevant literature. This research indicated that the current level of administrative burden decreases the adoption of renewable energy through ESAs by the federal government by raising upfront costs, depressing project attempts due to complexity, and introducing delays and challenges in successfully implemented projects. This chilling effect is especially pronounced in new policy vehicles and with inexperienced implementers. Findings from the specific case of ESAs can be generalized to other types of energy policy including efficiency programs. Policy makers decrease the efficacy of initiatives through increased administrative burden, and these effects will be most pronounced in programs with novel design or targeted at unfamiliar audiences.

Newkirk, Alex↗

DOE OSTI2023

Connecting Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure to Commercial Buildings

Electric vehicles (EVs) are growing in popularity and gaining meaningful market share with record sales year over year in the last decade. EV charging equipment, also known as EV chargers (EVC) or EV supply equipment (EVSE), must proportionally match the growing number of new EVs on the road for a comparable experience to gas-powered vehicles. The majority of EV charging currently happens at residential buildings. However, demand for EV charging at commercial buildings will significantly increase with wider mainstream EV adoption and as businesses return to more normal operation following COVID-19 pandemic disruptions. Charging equipment can include various sub-systems like power conditioning module, control software, safety devices, metering, communication, cooling, connectors, and its wiring. EV charging at commercial buildings could be used for public, workplace, and commercial fleet charging. This document aims to describe how EVC can be connected to commercial buildings, including considerations for facility managers, and the effects that charging will have on the buildings electrical distribution system. More specifically, this resource provides an overview of: understanding EV charging basics: how charging equipment connects to the building and to EVs; required infrastructure updates needed at the building site to connect EVC to existing distribution systems; network strategies for cost-effective operation; metering and utility considerations for billing and incentives; charging equipment ownership options; future trends in EVC connection to buildings.

ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS,ENERGY CONSERVATION, C↗

DOE OSTI2023

Electric Vehicle Managed Charging: Estimating the Potential Bulk Power System Value

With more and more electric vehicles (EVs) on the road, the grid of the future can greatly benefit from EV managed charging, which coordinates charging based on people's travel needs, electricity supply, and grid conditions. The added flexibility could be especially valuable for the bulk power system as it transitions to high shares of variable renewable generation, like wind and solar. Numerous studies have estimated the potential value of EV managed charging. In this study, NREL leveraged more detailed modeling of EV adoption, use, charging, and bulk power system operations to understand the potential value. Unique to this study, NREL modeled different charging flexibility types and dispatch mechanisms - as well as participation rates among drivers in having their EV charging managed - starting from vehicle-specific descriptions of charging flexibility. The study is based on a passenger light-duty vehicle adoption scenario with 100% EV sales by 2035 and a New England power system in 2038 with 84% clean generation and 26% of the electric load met by net imports. The 2038 New England light-duty vehicle feet is modeled as 45% electric.

ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS,ENERGY PLANNING, POLIC↗

DOE OSTI2023

Industrial Assessment Center Program Final Progress Report

During September 1, 2021 to August 31, 2023 period, the University of Massachusetts’ Industrial Assessment Center completed 36 industrial assessments at plants across New England. Total annual sales for those plants, which employed 2,664 people, were close to $1.15 billion. Our 212 recommendations amounted to potential savings of $7,069,352, which represented 24.14% of the total energy costs these facilities incurred.

Industrial Assessments Energy Efficiency Student T↗

DOE OSTI2023

Enabling a Sustainable Future: Zero-Emission Vehicles Cost Analysis to Inform Decarbonization Pathways

Despite being only 5% of vehicles on the road, medium- and heavy-duty vehicles (MHDVs) are the second largest contributor to transportation emissions (21%) and a major source of local air pollution disproportionally affecting disadvantaged communities. This talk summarizes a cost analysis for zero emissions vehicles (battery electric EVs and hydrogen fuel cell FCEVs) for all medium and heavy duty applications, ranging from large pick-up trucks, to delivery vans, buses, and heavy trucks. Results show that with continued improvements in vehicle and fuel technologies (in line with U.S. Department of Energy targets and vetted with industry), zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) can reach total-cost-of-driving parity with conventional diesel vehicles by 2035 for all medium- and heavy-duty (MD/HD) vehicle classes without incentives. Assuming economics drives adoption, ZEV sales could reach 42% of all MD/HD trucks by 2030, reflecting lower combined vehicle purchase and operating costs (using real-world payback periods). Two technological solutions - battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) - are viable in multiple market segments, offering alternative pathways for decarbonization: a) BEVs tend to become cost-competitive for smaller trucks before 2030 and for short-haul (<500-mile) heavy trucks before 2035. b) Hydrogen FCEVs tend to become cost-competitive for long-haul (>500-mile) heavy trucks by 2035. Results are very sensitive to technology improvement trajectories, adoption decision-making, and uncertain assumptions about future freight demand, logistics, and vehicle use explored in multiple scenarios.

ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS,ENERGY PLANNING, POLIC↗

DOE OSTI2020

Middlesex South FUSRAP Site: Collaboration Towards Beneficial Reuse - 20338

The US Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Legacy Management (LM) manages DoE's post-closure responsibilities and ensures the future protection of human health and the environment with respect to sites that have no continuing DOE mission after undergoing remediation. LM's beneficial reuse program promotes the LM strategic goal to sustainably manage and optimize use of public lands. The beneficial reuse program aims to repurpose former contaminated sites to restore the environment, protect the public health, revitalize communities, and spur economic growth. Benefits from the reuse of a site may increase the local tax base, facilitate job growth, utilize existing infrastructure, and enhance or protect natural resources. Beneficial reuse also promotes protectiveness by ensuring activities are compatible with long-term maintenance and protection of public health and the environment, as well as by retaining good stewardship of natural resources. LM actively participates in promoting the economic development vision of the surrounding communities by collaborating with local communities to promote regional or municipal initiatives. The Borough of Middlesex, New Jersey, has prepared the Lincoln Boulevard Redevelopment Plan, which will reinvent a once-viable downtown and enhance the quality of life for the community. The Middlesex South, New Jersey, Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP) site lies within the boundaries of this redevelopment area. In support of this development plan, the Borough is interested in acquiring the site for its Department of Public Works and to increase street access in the future commercial district to be built near adjacent properties. The opportunity to put the FUSRAP site into productive use aligns with LM's mission and strategic goals. In support of beneficial reuse activities, DOE can dispose of excess real property using several mechanisms. The two disposal options applicable to the Middlesex south site include (1) utilizing the US General Services Administration (GSA) or (2) using the Title 10 Code of Federal Regulations Section 770, 'Transfer of Real Property at Defense Nuclear Facilities for Economic Development' (known as a '770 transfer') process. Using the 770 transfer requires economic development as the primary driver, and a specific redevelopment proposal must be submitted. If there is no interest in specific economic development, the GSA option becomes the default mechanism for disposal of the property. In the case of the Middlesex south site, the 770 transfer process is being utilized and the Borough has submitted its economic development proposal to LM. Although LM is encouraged by the opportunity to put the site into productive use, the Middlesex south site is currently on the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) National Priorities List and remediation is being performed by the US Army Corp of Engineers (USACE) under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA). Consequently, any property transfer must meet the requirements under CERCLA Section 120(h), 'Property Transferred by Federal Agencies.' As the groundwater remedy will not be in place for several years, approval would be required from the US EPA administrator and the governor of the state of New Jersey to perform an early transfer of the site (before all response actions have been completed). The time frame for these approvals to occur under the normal process conflicts with the proposed redevelopment schedule; therefore, various options for expedited sale, transfer, or lease of portions of the site to the Borough were evaluated. The subsequent decision on a mutually beneficial path forward was the result of a collaborative effort between LM, USACE, the Borough and its redevelopment team, EPA, and the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

DOE OSTI2024

Solar Photovoltaic and Storage Supply Chains and Technology and Market Opportunities

This talk will highlight the most recent efforts from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) to track solar photovoltaic (PV) and storage supply and demand in the United States and globally, as well as bottom-up calculations of manufacturing costs for facilities across the globe. We will begin with an overview of the global solar PV supply chain and 2022 benchmark input data used for NREL's bottom-up crystalline silicon (c-Si) and thin film PV module manufacturing cost models. For the polysilicon, wafer, cell conversion, and module assembly steps of the c-Si supply chain, and for thin film modules, we will review the industry-collected input data and methods used for calculating the costs of goods sold (COGS); research and development (R&D) expenses; and sales, general, and business administration (S, G, and A) expenses. This 2022 benchmark analysis is compiled for state-of-the-art c-Si and thin film PV module manufacturing in several countries and regions; and will also include a quantified summary of the impacts of the manufacturing incentives and tax credits that are available for solar manufacturing and installations within the United States. Next generation technologies that lower PV manufacturing and installation costs, reduce operations and maintenance (O&M) expenses, and improve system energy yield will also be highlighted. We will conclude with projections of solar market penetration to 2050 from NREL's Solar Futures Study and Annual Technology Baseline (ATB) model, which includes solar coupled with lower-cost storage scenarios as well as the range of future cost scenarios for other power generation sources. We look forward to sharing NREL's extensive work in these areas and discussing ideas for future directions.

economics↗

DOE OSTI2024

SAE Government-Industry - Heavy-Duty Policy: Panel Discussion (G203)

Medium- and heavy-duty vehicles are 21% of US transportation greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and a major source of air pollution. In this talk to present some results exploring how the total cost of driving (TCD) of zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs), including battery electric vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (EVs and FCEVs), could evolve under alternative scenarios. Results show that with continued improvements in vehicles and fuels, ZEVs can rapidly become viable, potentially reaching TCD parity or better compared to diesel vehicles by 2035 for all market segments. For heavy long-haul trucks, EVs become competitive on a TCD basis at charging costs below $0.18/kWh, while FCEVs become competitive on a TCD basis at hydrogen costs below $5/kg. A full transition to ZEV sales by 2035 results in 65% emissions reductions by 2050 compared to 2019 without supportive policies. Incentives such as the Inflation Reduction Act vehicle purchase credits further accelerate ZEV TCD competitiveness with major adoption opportunities over the next five years.

ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS,DIRECT ENERGY CONVERSI↗

DOE OSTI2024

Optimal operations of a nuclear-based integrated energy system: A mixed integer program approach

A nuclear-based integrated energy system (IES), consisting of multiple carbon-free energy generation and conversion technologies to meet heterogeneous end-use demands, offers a promising approach to decarbonizing the U.S. economy. Operating such an IES is challenging due to its complexity and the diverse end-use demands, such as heating and electricity. This paper aims to address the optimal operation of an IES composed of a small modular reactor (SMR), a steam manifold, a balance of plant (BOP), a high-temperature steam electrolysis (HTSE) system, a district heating (DH) network, and electrical grids. We formulate the system’s operation as a mixed integer linear programming (MILP) problem to maximize net revenues from sales of electricity and hydrogen. To evaluate the efficacy of the proposed model, we conduct a 24-hour simulation considering day-ahead (DA) electricity prices from CAISO and a varying DH demand profile with hourly resolution. The simulation results show that our model effectively optimizes the operation by selling electricity during on-peak periods and purchasing electricity for hydrogen production during off-peak periods, while satisfying operating constraints within the IES.

08 HYDROGEN↗

DOE OSTI2024

2022 Component Innovation Awardee: Windurance

Combining battery energy storage with distributed wind energy systems can increase production, ability to meet local electricity demands, interconnection capacity, and potential sales of surplus energy back to the grid, while reducing demand charges and the overall levelized cost of energy (LCOE). Energy storage options for distributed wind energy systems can vary widely in terms of power level and energy storage capacity, and their potential benefits depend on factors including wind resource, turbine design, connection requirements, use patterns, utility rates, and regulations. Windurance received a 2022 Competitiveness Improvement Project (CIP) funding award to add battery energy storage capabilities to the company's bidirectional DC converter. The energy storage component will complete a comprehensive portfolio of power conversion and control electronics that can be seamlessly integrated with distributed wind systems. The company received earlier CIP awards to fund prototype design and construction of wind turbine pitch actuators, inverters, and controllers.

CIP↗

DOE OSTI2024

Leveraging Military Veteran Talent Through SkillBridge Training: Recommendations for the Solar Industry

Solar Energy International (SEI), in partnership with IREC, has published a white paper, Leveraging Military Veteran Talent Through SkillBridge Training: Recommendations for the Solar Industry. This resource presents SkillBridge as a key strategy for solar employers to attract, develop, and retain qualified veteran talent, and provides model training frameworks aligned with four key occupations, including solar installation, operations and maintenance, technical sales, and solar design.

Howes, Megan↗