Deep Learning Approach for High-accuracy Electron Counting of Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor-type Direct Electron Detectors at Increased Electron Dose
Abstract Electron counting can be performed algorithmically for monolithic active pixel sensor direct electron detectors to eliminate readout noise and Landau noise arising from the variability in the amount of deposited energy for each electron. Errors in existing counting algorithms include mistakenly counting a multielectron strike as a single electron event, and inaccurately locating the incident position of the electron due to lateral spread of deposited energy and dark noise. Here, we report a supervised deep learning (DL) approach based on Faster region-based convolutional neural network (R-CNN) to recognize single electron events at varying electron doses and voltages. The DL approach shows high accuracy according to the near-ideal modulation transfer function (MTF) and detector quantum efficiency for sparse images. It predicts, on average, 0.47 pixel deviation from the incident positions for 200 kV electrons versus 0.59 pixel using the conventional counting method. The DL approach also shows better robustness against coincidence loss as the electron dose increases, maintaining the MTF at half Nyquist frequency above 0.83 as the electron density increases to 0.06 e−/pixel. Thus, the DL model extends the advantages of counting analysis to higher dose rates than conventional methods.