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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 37 records · Page 2
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Designing Harvesting and Hauling Cost Models for Energy Cane Production for Biorefineries

The harvesting and hauling operations of bioenergy feedstock is an important area in biofuel production. Production costs can be minimized by maintaining optimal machinery units for these operations. The objective of this study is to design an optimal harvesting unit for bioenergy refinery and estimate harvesting and hauling costs of energy cane. A biorefinery with the annual capacity of processing twenty-five million imp. gallons of ethanol were considered. Given the efficiency of harvesting, a two-row soldier system was considered. Considering the year-round supply of energy cane to the refinery, the optimal machinery unit was designed, and the combined operation costs were derived. The average estimated ownership, repair, labor and fuel and lubricant costs of biomass harvest unit were calculated to be $\$$0.50, $\$$0.54, $\$$1.78 and $\$$1.51/mt, respectively. The costs distribution generated showed harvesting and hauling costs could range between $\$$5.47–$\$$9.23/mt of energy cane. The methodology and the research output will provide guidelines for investors in designing harvesting and hauling units and estimating costs for different scales of operation.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Evaluation and calibration of MERRA-2 and CAMS reanalysis for PM 2.5 in a semi-urbanized area in the south of the Amazon

Air pollution has significant implications for the climate and poses irreversible risks to human health. The Amazon region of Brazil is severely affected by biomass burning (BB) emissions, yet air quality monitoring remains highly inadequate. Given the scarcity of surface-based observations, reanalysis models have become essential tools for assessing air pollution. Although MERRA-2 and CAMS PM 2.5 products are widely utilized, their validation and comprehensive evaluation for the Amazon Basin remain limited. Here, this study assesses the performance of these products in a semi-urbanized region in the southern Amazon. The calibrated time series was employed to analyze PM 2.5 concentrations from 2003 to 2023. Our results showed satisfactory performance of both products for the 24-h averages of PM 2.5 , with linear correlations above 0.76. However, it was found that both products overestimate surface concentrations. MERRA-2 performed better, with approximately 30% lower bias than CAMS. Time series analysis showed that the study area is strongly impacted by emissions BB in the dry period, mainly in August and September. Furthermore, our findings indicate a positive trend in increasing PM 2.5 concentrations, with a notable rise observed since 2014. The average PM 2.5 levels frequently exceed the daily air quality guidelines established by the WHO in 2021. It has been estimated that the population of this region is exposed to concentrations above 15 μg.m -3 , on average, more than 30 days per year. Our results contribute to the evaluation of MERRA-2 and CAMS products for Amazon and provide a corrected estimate for surface PM 2.5 . Recent concerns about air quality and the implementation of new surface monitoring networks may improve the evaluation of reanalysis products. In the short term, the need for this information makes our assessments indispensable.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Fast Modular Reactor (FMR): Overview and Conceptual Design Work

The conceptual design of the FMR including the experimental and numerical verifications will lead to: Cost estimation of the FMR based on the conceptual design results and guidelines of advanced reactor construction. Submittal of the pre-application licensing plan to the NRC for review and feedback.

22 GENERAL STUDIES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS↗
DOE OSTI2024

A Refined Method to Translate Solar Data Quality Assessment Flags to Estimated Measurement Uncertainty

Integrating solar resource uncertainties due to radiometer measurement performance and operational data quality assessment can provide improved estimates of economic bankability, system design performance, and compliance of solar energy conversion systems. Estimating radiometer measurement uncertainty is an established procedure consistent with recognized best practices and international guidelines. SERI QC is a robust solar data quality assessment software tool that has been in continuous use for more than three decades. This report, the fourth of six for the Data Quality and Uncertainty Integration Project, presents a refined algorithm description for software to translate solar resource data quality assessment results into estimated uncertainty values in a Solar Resource Operational Uncertainty Integrator (SROUI) application. This algorithm requires three-component solar irradiance measurements - global horizontal irradiance, direct normal irradiance, and diffuse horizontal irradiance - collected at 1- to 60-minute intervals, as described in the previous deliverables. The development of this report as Deliverable 6.4 was an iterative process that included reviews and feedback from the project team on initial drafts designed to refine how the new software could best support determining solar resource data uncertainty. The results of this effort will contribute to the final software system development by National Renewable Energy Laboratory staff.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2024

A Cohesive Deep Drilling Field Strategy for LSST Cosmology

The Vera C. Rubin Observatory Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST) will image billions of astronomical objects in the wide–fast–deep primary survey and in a set of minisurveys including intensive observations of a group of deep drilling fields (DDFs). The DDFs are a critical piece of three key aspects of the LSST Dark Energy Science Collaboration (DESC) cosmological measurements: they provide a required calibration for photometric redshifts (photo- z ) and weak gravitational lensing (WL) measurements and they directly contribute to cosmological constraints from the most distant Type Ia supernovae (SNe Ia). We present a set of cohesive DDF strategies fulfilling science requirements relevant to DESC and following the guidelines of the Survey Cadence Optimization Committee. We propose a method to estimate the observing strategy parameters and we perform simulations of the corresponding surveys. We define a set of metrics for each science case to assess the performance of the proposed observing strategies. We show that the most promising results are achieved with deep rolling surveys characterized by two sets of fields: ultradeep fields ( z ≲ 1.1) observed at a high cadence with a large number of visits over a limited number of seasons, and deep fields ( z ≲ 0.7), observed with a cadence of ~3 nights for 10 yr. These encouraging results should be confirmed with realistic simulations using the LSST scheduler. A DDF budget of ~8.5% is required to design observing strategies satisfying all the cosmological requirements. A lower DDF budget leads to surveys that either do not fulfill the photo- z /WL requirements or are not optimal for SN Ia cosmology.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI2023

Integrating Mercury Concentrations in American Alligators ( Alligator mississippiensis ) with Hunter Consumption Surveys to Estimate Exposure Risk

Mercury is a naturally occurring element but is also considered a widespread contaminant due to global anthropogenic activity. Even in moderate amounts, mercury (Hg) is an established neurotoxin and is associated with a range of adverse outcomes both in humans and wildlife. Humans in the United States are most commonly exposed to Hg through contaminated food or drinking water, and the consumption of game species, particularly those occupying higher trophic levels, has the potential to expose hunters to high concentrations of Hg. In the present study, we determined Hg concentrations in tail muscle and blood from American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis) inhabiting a region (Savannah River Site, SC, USA) with known Hg contamination. We then integrated these data with alligator harvest records and previously published surveys of alligator meat consumption patterns to estimate potential exposure risk. We found that the average Hg concentrations in tail muscle (1.34 mg/kg, wet wt) from sampled alligators exceeded the recommended threshold for Hg exposure based on the World Health Organization's guidelines (0.5mg/kg, wet wt). In addition, based on regional consumption patterns reported for both adults and children, we estimated Hg exposures (x¯ Adult = 0.419 μg/kg/day, x¯ Child = 2.24 μg/kg/day) occurring well above the US Environmental Protection Agency methylmercury reference dose of 0.1 μg/kg/day. Although the two reservoirs sampled in the present study are not currently open to alligator hunting, they are connected to waters that are publicly accessible, and the extent of alligator mobility across these sites is not known. Together, the findings reported in the present study further demonstrate the need for active monitoring of Hg concentrations in game species, which can convey substantial exposure risks to the public.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2020

Estimation, Minimization, and Validation of Commutation Loop Inductance for a 135-kW SiC EV Traction Inverter

With growing interests in low inductance SiC based power module packaging, it is vital to focus on system level design aspects to facilitate easy integration of the modules and reap system level benefits. To effectively utilize the low inductance modules, busbar and interconnects should also be designed with low stray inductances. A wholistic investigation of the flux path and flux cancellations in the module-busbar assembly which as differentially coupled series inductors is thus mandatory for a system level design. This work presents a busbar design which can be adopted to effectively integrate the CREE’s low inductance 1.2 kV/1.7 kV SiC power modules. The paper also proposes a novel measurement technique to measure the inductance of the modulebusbar assembly as a whole rather than deducing it from individual components. The inductance of the overall commutation loop of the inverter which encompasses the SiC power module, interconnects and PCB busbar have been estimated using finite element analysis (FEA). Furthermore, insights gained from FEA provided the guidelines to decide on the placement of the decoupling capacitors in the busbar to minimize the overall commutation loop inductance from 12.8 nH to 7.4 nH which resulted in significant reduction in the device voltage overshoot. The simulation results have been validated through measurements using an impedance analyzer with less than 5% difference between extracted loop inductance from FEA and measurements. The bus bar design study and the measurement technique discussed in this paper, can be easily extended to other power module packages. Finally, the 135 kW inverter has been compared to a similar highpower inverter utilizing a laminated busbar to highlight the performance of the former.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2023

How long were older people expected to live with or without sarcopenia? Multistate modeling of a national cohort study

Objectives Sarcopenia is well known to be associated with mortality, but there is a lack of evidence on the estimates of life expectancy (LE) for sarcopenia in China. This study aims to estimate total life expectancy (TLE) and sarcopenia-specific LE in community-dwelling older Chinese adults with and without sarcopenia. Methods This study included participants aged 60 years and older who enrolled in the cohort in 2011 and 2013 and at least completed one follow-up until 2015 as part of the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS). The criteria for defining sarcopenia were based on the guidelines established by the Asian Working Group on Sarcopenia in 2019. TLE and sarcopenia-specific LE were estimated for the total population and subgroups using continuous-time multistate modeling. Results A total of 6,029 participants (49.2% women) with an average age of 68.4 (SD: 6.56) years were included in the study. The baseline prevalence of sarcopenia and possible sarcopenia was 19.5 and 44.9%, respectively. We observed that sarcopenia stages naturally deteriorated to worse stages (including death, by 24.4%) and returned to better stages (17.1%) during a median follow-up of 3.92 years (IQR: 2.00 ~ 4.00). The average TLE at the age of 60 was 20.9 [95% CI: 20.2–21.5] years (22.1 [95% CI: 19.6–24.6] for non-sarcopenic older adults, 20.9 [95% CI: 19.5–22.3] for possible sarcopenic, and 18.7 [95% CI: 16.4–21.1] for sarcopenic). Men, former and current smokers, and those living in northwest China had less TLE. Sarcopenic older adults, those with lower education, those who are unmarried, those with agriculture hukou, and those living in rural and northwest China were expected to live fewer years with non-sarcopenia. Sarcopenic older people, men, those with agriculture hukou, and those living in rural and southwest China were expected to live more years with sarcopenia. Discussion The results improved our understanding of the relationship between sarcopenia and life expectancy. We suggested that targeted strategies should be considered in high-risk populations and underdeveloped regions to prevent sarcopenia and improve non-sarcopenic life years for the older population.

Ye, Bo↗
DOE OSTI2025

Quality Guidelines for Energy System Studies: Capital Cost Scaling Methodology: Revision 4b Report

The National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) regularly updates legacy analysis with new studies and cases as the Department of Energy objectives change, technology performance improves, costs are reduced, regulations change, market drivers are established, fuel prices fluctuate, and any number of other relevant factors vary in the market. As legacy studies are updated by NETL, the underlying performance and cost of the cases presented changes, and as such, the methods for interpreting and scaling the cost estimates change. Therefore, it is important that NETL maintain public guidance documents associated with different sets of cost estimates that delineate how a specific set, based on report vintage and/or year published, should be scaled. This Quality Guidelines for Energy System Studies report, providing guidance on capital cost scaling, should generally be applied to NETL case costs included in the report “Cost and Performance Baseline for Fossil Energy Plants Volume 1: Bituminous Coal and Natural Gas to Electricity Revision 4b,” (NETL, 2025) or any cases derived from the cases presented in the referenced report.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Common-Cause Component Group Modeling Issues in Probabilistic Risk Assess

Common cause failures (CCFs) have been recognized as significant risk contributors in probabilistic risk assessments (PRAs) for commercial nuclear power plants (NPPs) since 1980s. A series of reports including those of United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulations (NUREGs) have been published from late 1980s to early 2000s to provide guidelines for performing CCF event data analysis and modeling CCF in PRA. However, there are still some issues existed in CCF modeling and CCF parameter estimations. One of such issues is the modeling of multiple common-cause component group (CCCG) for the same component in a PRA model. This paper exams the CCCG definition and the requirements from the PRA standard, investigates the CCCG modeling practices and issues existing in PRAs, and presents systematic approaches and guidelines to model CCCG in PRA properly and consistently.

99 GENERAL AND MISCELLANEOUS↗
DOE OSTI2020

Hot-Carrier Extraction in Nanowire-Nanoantenna Photovoltaic Devices

Nanowires bring new possibilities to the field of hot-carrier photovoltaics by providing flexibility in combining materials for band engineering and using nanophotonic effects to control light absorption. Previously, an open-circuit voltage beyond the Shockley–Queisser limit was demonstrated in hot-carrier devices based on InAs–InP–InAs nanowire heterostructures. However, in these first experiments, the location of light absorption, and therefore the precise mechanism of hot-carrier extraction, was uncontrolled. In this study, we combine plasmonic nanoantennas with InAs–InP–InAs nanowire devices to enhance light absorption within a subwavelength region near an InP energy barrier that serves as an energy filter. From photon-energy- and irradiance-dependent photocurrent and photovoltage measurements, we find that photocurrent generation is dominated by internal photoemission of nonthermalized hot electrons when the photoexcited electron energy is above the barrier and by photothermionic emission when the energy is below the barrier. We estimate that an internal quantum efficiency up to 0.5–1.2% is achieved. Insights from this study provide guidelines to improve internal quantum efficiencies based on nanowire heterostructures.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2021

Collective Analysis of Alpha Particle Losses Due to Self-Absorption by Mass Loading on Radioactive Particulate Glass Fiber Filters

In this study, we derived a relationship between filter mass loading and the percent loss during analysis using the mass loading data collected from six previous studies of self-absorption. Components of mass loading include particulate dust, radioactive particulates, and filter material. In a research report published in 1984, Higby calculated a minimum burial depth for an alpha particle to be lost due to absorption (100% loss) of about 3.7 mg/cm 2 based on calculations for the range of 239-Pu alpha particles in glass fiber filters. From there, Higby concluded that a correction factor of 0.85 assumes approximately 15% losses in the count rate of both alpha and beta particles. In 2000, Luetzelschwab et al. recommended assuming a 40% loss at a loading of 3.3 mg/cm 2 and a 28% loss for a loading of 2.3 mg/cm 2 which included the frontal face mass of the filter. More recently, the 100% losses due to absorption were reported to be in the 10 mg/cm 2 range. Presented here is a trinomial relationship method of relating percent loss due to self-absorption to filter mass loading, based on data reported by Higby, Luetzelschwab et al., Huang et al., Barnett et al., Smith et al., and Hogue et al. Under normal operating conditions at the stacks monitored by Effluent Management, the mass loading of sample filters averages 0.09 ± 0.12 (2s) mg/cm 2 (excluding negative values and outliers) and ranges from 0 mg/cm 2 to 0.24 mg/cm 2 . Based on current mass loading results for Effluent Management stack sample filters, the forced-zero trinomial relationship method estimated self-absorption losses of less than 5%. Because American National Standards Institute/Health Physics Society N13.1-2011 guidelines indicate a correction factor should be used when the penetration of radioactive material into the collection media or self-absorption of radiation by the material collected would reduce the count rate by more than 5%, it is possible continued application of a correction factor to the Effluent Management stack samples is no longer necessary. Nevertheless, continuing to assign a correction factor at the 5% threshold (i.e., 0.95) would be a conservative approach.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Advanced control sequences and FDD technology. Just shiny objects, or ready for scale?

Innovations in commercial building control sequences (ASHRAE guideline 36) and fault detection and diagnostics (FDD) technology have the potential to transform existing building operational efficiency by realizing whole-building level savings on the order of 15% and higher. However, several technical and market barriers related to up-front estimation of achievable savings, verifying implementation, and ensuring persistence are slowing down their adoption as a core offering through diverse owner-funded initiatives and rate-payer funded programs. This paper describes a suite of solutions to overcome these barriers to program delivery of advanced HVAC controls integrated with FDD energy management and information system (EMIS) technology. First, the Guideline 36 conformance test offers an automated method to confirm correct sequence implementation by the manufacturer, before field deployment. A successful test of a controller was conducted using a new manufacturer-independent hardware-in-the-loop testbed demonstrating the viability and scalability of this approach. Second, the Guideline 36 energy savings calculator uses modeling paired with high-level user inputs to estimate building-specific savings potential, target cost effective implementation and minimize uncertainty. Initial results indicate the baseline control sequences significantly impact energy savings, however, as much as 50% savings may be possible for the worst-case baseline scenario. Third, a functional specification provides minimum recommended EMIS-FDD capabilities, and best practices to integrate the technology into organizational practice and ensure that advanced control sequences provide persistent savings.

Pritoni, Marco↗
DOE OSTI2024

Failure Analysis for Molten Salt Thermal Energy Storage Tanks for In-Service CSP Plants

Thermal Energy Storage (TES) is a fundamental component in concentrating solar power (CSP) plants to increase the plant's dispatchability, capacity factor, while reducing the levelized cost of electricity. In central receivers CSP plants, nitrate molten salts have been used for several years for operation temperatures of up to 565 degrees C. Despite many efforts to advance nitrate salt to higher operation temperatures (even considering a replacement with molten chloride salts) to achieve higher energy conversion efficiencies, the 565 degrees C temperature is currently considered the state-of-the art. Although molten salt tanks have been broadly deployed in commercial CSP plants worldwide, several failures have been reported in these tanks after a few months or years of operation, causing significant economic loss and mistrust in CSP technologies. Most of these failures are associated with the infancy of the technology and multiple issues related to tank design, fabrication, commissioning, and aggressive operation. A technical standard dedicated to the design and fabrication of molten nitrate TES tanks does not exist today. Current in-service molten salt tanks have been generally designed based on the American Petroleum Institute's (API) 650 and ASME Section II standards. The API 650 code provides guidelines for dimensions and fabrication for oil storage tanks up to 260 degrees C. The ASME standard provides allowable stress values for various materials at a range of temperatures and conditions. Both standards seem to be limited for molten salt TES tanks where high temperatures, thermal cycling, and transient conditions are expected. In 2020, NREL released the Concentrating Solar Power Best Practices Study (NREL/TP-5500-75763) that summarized multiple issues in CSP plants, along with potential alternatives and recommendations to address those issues based on information collected from participants representing about 80% of operating CSP plants in the world. One of the recommendations from this study was the development of accurate and validated models to evaluate the plant's transient operation, capable of capturing the effect of short-term clouds and operator response, while being flexible in being adapted to various spatial and temporal resource data. The "Failure Analysis for Molten Salt Thermal Energy Tanks for In-Service CSP Plants" project was inspired on this recommendation and was focused on (1) the development and validation of a physics-based model for a representative, commercial-scale molten salt tank, (2) performing simulations to evaluate the behavior of the tank as a function of typical plant operation conditions, (3) understanding tank failures mechanisms, (4) determining the residual stress and distortion in the tank floor after welding fabrication and evaluating their impact in the stresses developed in the tank during operation, (5) assessing the impact of key operation parameters on the temperature and stress distribution, (6) conduct a preliminary evaluation of design features to reduce stress and improve tank's reliability, and (7) estimate the tank's service life based on the stress developed under diverse operation scenarios. From the analysis conducted in the project and presented in this report, it was found that maximum stresses surpassing the yield strength point of the stainless steel (SS) 347H are developed on the tank floor near the perimeter. These large stresses are strongly influenced by the initial residual stresses and distortion of the tank floor after welding fabrication. During operation, large stresses are developed in the tank floor at high operation temperatures with large salt inventory levels during transient operation. High stresses are also related to elevated temperature gradients in the tank floor that could be attributed to insufficient mixing within the salt inflow and the salt inventory. Based on the analysis, creep is the predominant failure mechanism. However, the large stress levels could favor the plastic deformation into buckles, and crack formation due to stress relaxation cracking during cycle operation. A lifetime below 3 years was estimated for the typical plant operation conditions and a specific initial residual stress and deformation distribution of the tank floor. The estimated life agrees with the service time to failure reported in several commercial molten salt tanks. Desing and operation guidelines can be extracted from the analysis presented in this report, which could be adopted by tank manufacturers and CSP operators to advance toward an ultimate solution for tank failures by reducing residual and operational stresses to achieve a tank service life of more than 30 years. Addressing failures in molten salt TES tanks is fundamental for the CSP industry's survivability, but it is also important for other industrial and power generation applications using this technology, including nuclear and concentrating solar thermal.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Toward a standardization of cryostructure and cryogenic soil structure terminology for the field description of permafrost‐affected soils

This paper establishes standardized terminology and field documentation protocols for cryostructures and cryogenic soil structures in permafrost‐affected soils and provides brief guidance on descriptions of ground ice morphology and ice volume estimates. We consolidate permafrost terminology from Russian and North American literature, clarify long‐standing ambiguities, and provide explicit guidelines that align with US Department of Agriculture‐Natural Resources Conservation Service soil description standards. Our scheme makes critical distinctions between cryostructure, the distribution of ice within soil, and cryogenic soil structure, the morphological structure of soil resulting from ice formation. The scheme organizes cryostructures into three main categories: non‐segregated ice, visible segregated ice, and ice matrices. We introduce standardized codes and parameters for field descriptions of ice and soil that enable machine‐readable data collection compatible with existing soil information systems. This standardization will significantly enhance the integration of field observations into landscape‐scale assessments of permafrost stability, infrastructure vulnerability, and ecosystem response to permafrost thaw, addressing an urgent need for quantitative data to inform modeling and decision‐making in rapidly changing Arctic and subarctic environments.

Andersen, Megan L. [University of Minnesota, Saint↗
DOE OSTI2020

Pool Fire Analysis Methodology for Assessing Damage to Waste Containers

This document provides guidelines, whereby the physical parameters associated with postulated flammable/combustible liquid pool fires are determined (thermal analysis) in order to estimate the number of waste containers impacted. Pool fire damage to waste containers may occur due to a container being fully engulfed (within the periphery of the pool), partially engulfed, or within the critical heat flux distance. The methodology described here for estimating the size of the pool fire is developed using spill characteristics outlined in Chapter 65 of the SFPE Handbook (Ref. 7) and testing done by Hansen (Ref. 25). For exposures, the critical flux height is determined using the detailed method of Shokri and Beyler (Ref. 8) from the flame height, calculated as described by Heskestad (Ref. 7) and the average black body emissive power, determined using the method of Shokri and Beyler (Ref. 8). Three types of liquid pool fires should be considered; unconfined crash/instantaneous spill fires, unconfined continuously flowing (also called metered leak) spill fires, and confined spill fires. All fuel sources should be considered consistent with the facility Fire Hazard Analysis (FHA). However, the most likely liquid fuel sources present in TRU waste facilities are those present on TRU waste handling vehicles (forklifts, pallet movers, transport trucks, etc.). This method can also be used for assessing damage to items other than waste containers or other methods of analysis may be used with appropriate justification.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2021

PV Module Design for Recycling Guidelines

The global growth of clean energy technology deployment will be inexorably followed by a parallel growth of end-of-life (EOL) products that bring both challenges and opportunities. Cumulatively, by 2050, estimates project 78 million tonnes of raw materials embodied in the mass of EOL photovoltaic (PV) modules. Owing partly to concern that the projected growth of clean energy technologies could become constrained by availability of raw materials, despite ongoing dematerialization efforts, significant attention under the umbrella of circular economy has been brought to recycling these technologies at EOL. Yet PV has not been designed with recycling at EOL in mind, and it presents challenges to returning embodied raw materials back to use in new products through recycling. This study aims to inform future designs to improve recyclability through synthesis of prior published works augmented by novel recommendations that result in a set of general design for recycling (DfR) guidelines, with a subset specific to PV modules. We further discuss how established trends in design of PV modules could affect recyclability. If adopted today, application of these DfR guidelines could help to mitigate tomorrow's resource scarcity, lower the barriers and cost for PV recycling, and enable a circular economy during the energy transition.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗