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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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NASA NTRS1998

Navigation of the space VLBI mission-HALCA

In February 1997, the Japanese Space Agency ISAS launched the first space VLBI satellite, HALCA, with an 8 meter diameter wire mesh antenna and radio astronomy receivers capable of observing at 1.6, 4.8, and 22 Ghz. In a 560 by 21000 km orbit with a 6 hour period and 31 degree inclination, it observes celestial radio sources in conjunction with a world wide network of ground radio telescopes as part of an international collaborative effort which includes facilities in Japan, the U.S., Canada, Australia, and Europe. JPL is providing tracking and navigation support using a dedicated subnet of 11 meter antennas as well as co-observations using the DSN 70 meter antennas. This paper describes the spacecraft dynamics model and orbit determination strategies developed to meet the stringent trajectory accuracy requirements for generating predictions for the transfer of a stable uplink frequency to the spacecraft and for determining reconstructed orbits for delivery to the NRAO VLBI correlator and the international VLBI science community.

You, Tung Han↗

NASA NTRS2002

A Robust Magnetic Resonance Imager For Ground and Flight Based Measurements of Fluid Physics Phenomena

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a powerful and versatile, noninvasive method for studying fluid transport problems, However, its applications to these types of investigations have been limited. A primary factor that limits the application of NMR has been the lack of a user-friendly, versatile, and inexpensive NMR imaging apparatus that can be used by scientists who are not familiar with sophisticated NMR. To rectify this situation, we developed a user-friendly, NMR imager for projects of relevance to the MRD science community. To that end, we performed preliminary collaborative experiments between NASA, NCMR, and New Mexico Resonance in the high field NMR set up at New Mexico Resonance to track wetting front dynamics in foams under gravity. The experiments were done in a 30 cm, 1.9T Oxford magnet with a TECMAG Libra spectrometer (Tecmag, Inc., Houston, TX). We used two different imaging strategies depending on whether the water in the foam sample was static or moving. Stationary water distributions were imaged with the standard Fourier imaging method, as used in medical MRI, in which data are acquired from all parts of the region of interest at all times and Fourier transformed into a static spatial image.

Source record↗

NASA NTRS2004

The Wallops Flight Facility Rapid Response Range Operations Initiative

While the dominant focus on short response missions has appropriately centered on the launch vehicle and spacecraft, often overlooked or afterthought phases of these missions have been launch site operations and the activities of launch range organizations. Throughout the history of organized spaceflight, launch ranges have been the bane of flight programs as the source of expense, schedule delays, and seemingly endless requirements. Launch Ranges provide three basic functions: (1) provide an appropriate geographical location to meet orbital other mission trajectory requirements, (2) provide project services such as processing facilities, launch complexes, tracking and data services, and expendable products, and (3) assure safety and property protection to participating personnel and third-parties. The challenge with which launch site authorities continuously struggle, is the inherent conflict arising from projects whose singular concern is execution of their mission, and the range s need to support numerous simultaneous customers. So, while tasks carried out by a launch range committed to a single mission pale in comparison to efforts of a launch vehicle or spacecraft provider and could normally be carried out in a matter of weeks, major launch sites have dozens of active projects separate sponsoring organizations. Accommodating the numerous tasks associated with each mission, when hardware failures, weather, maintenance requirements, and other factors constantly conspire against the range resource schedulers, make the launch range as significant an impediment to responsive missions as launch vehicles and their cargo. The obvious solution to the launch site challenge was implemented years ago when the Department of Defense simply established dedicated infrastructure and personnel to dedicated missions, namely an Inter Continental Ballistic Missile. This however proves to be prohibitively expensive for all but the most urgent of applications. So the challenge becomes how can a launch site provide acceptably responsive mission services to a particular customer without dedicating extensive resources and while continuing to serve other projects? NASA's Wallops Flight Facility (WFF) is pursuing solutions to exactly this challenge. NASA, in partnership with the Virginia Commercial Space Flight Authority, has initiated the Rapid Response Range Operations Initiative (R3Ops). R3Ops is a multi-phased effort to incrementally establish and demonstrate increasingly responsive launch operations, with an ultimate goal of providing ELV-class services in a maximum of 7-10 days from initial notification routinely, and shorter schedules possible with committed resources. This target will be pursued within the reality of simultaneous concurrent programs, and ideally, largely independent of specialized flight system configurations. WFF has recently completed Phase 1 of R3Ops, an in-depth collection (through extensive expert interviews) and software modeling of individual steps by various range disciplines. This modeling is now being used to identify existing inefficiencies in current procedures, to identify bottlenecks, and show interdependencies. Existing practices are being tracked to provide a baseline to benchmark against as new procedures are implemented. This paper will describe in detail the philosophies behind WFF's R3Ops, the data collected and modeled in Phase 1, and strategies for meeting responsive launch requirements in a multi-user range environment planned for subsequent phases of this initiative.

Underwood, Bruce E.↗

DOE OSTI2024

Measuring Economy-Wide Circularity of the United States: An Input-Output Model in Mass Units

The ideal of creating closed material cycles by transforming the way we make, use and repurpose goods has become known as the circular economy. Besides its visionary appeal, material efficiency strategies central to circular economy can allow us to meet decarbonization goals that are otherwise out of reach. Production of basic materials such as cement, iron and steel and petrochemicals is one of the largest drivers of greenhouse gas emissions. Measuring circularity, and understanding its relationship with other sustainability metrics, however, is still difficult due to lack of data in mass units covering the entire economic system. Input-output (I-O) tables were originally created as a means of tracking the monetary flows that represent exchanges of goods and services within an economy, but have found additional uses in life cycle assessment and material flow accounts. In the traditional approach of environmentally extended I-O tables, emissions and energy data augment monetary flows. This approach can lead to price effects that distort physical quantities. Also, circular economy strategies and their goals relate to mass, not monetary flows. Therefore, it is best to simulate them using physical quantities. With these issues in mind, we have developed I-O tables in mass units to measure the flow of goods in the U.S. economy. This allows us to better measure how circular the economy really is, and how policy changes to affect this circularity may also affect decarbonization goals. Improving knowledge of these linkages could allow manufacturers to make changes in their production to achieve their sustainability and decarbonization targets. Our tool also provides a standard approach and public repository for data in physical units, making such data more available, useful, and meaningful. Following an established set of material flow metrics used by the European Union, we have used our tool to calculate material footprints over time differentiated by oil and gas versus other extractive industries. This approach also shows the relative trade balances of the U.S. in materials. We have developed a case study for the iron and steel sector, showing how different decarbonization scenarios affect not only economy-wide greenhouse gas emissions, but also total material use.

circular economy↗

NASA NTRS2003

Small Signal Point-to-Point Tracking of a Propellant Mixer

This paper addresses some theoretical modelling and control issues for a mixing chamber used in rocket engine testing at NASA Stennis Space Center. The mixer is responsible for combining high pressure LH2 and GH2 to produce a hydrogen flow that meets certain thermodynamic properties before it is fed into a test article. The desired properties are maintained by precise control of the LH2 and GH2 flows. The mixer is modelled as a general multi-flow lumped volume for single constituent fluids using density and internal energy as states. The set of nonlinear differential equations is modelled in the SIMULINK environment including a table look-up feature of the fluid thermodynamic properties. a small-signal (linear) model is developed based on the nonlinear model and simulated as well. Pulse disturbances are introduced to the valve positions and the quality of the linear model is ascertained by comparing its behavior against the nonlinear model simulations. Valve control strategies that simulate an operator-in-the-loop scenario are then explored demonstrating the need for automatic feedback control. Finally, classical optimal single-output and multi-output Proportional/Integral controllers are designed based on the linear model and applied to the nonlinear model with excellent results to track simultaneous, constant setpoint changes in desired exit flow, exit temperature, and mixer pressure, as well as to reject unmeasurable but bounded additive step perturbations in the valve positions.

Barbieri, Enrique↗

DOE OSTI2022

Mapping 3D grain and precipitate structure during in situ mechanical testing of open-cell metal foam using micro-computed tomography and high-energy X-ray diffraction microscopy

Open-cell metal foams are ultra-low-density cellular metals with complex hierarchical structures that span bulk, cell, ligament, and sub-ligament scales and give rise to desirable properties such as high strength-to-weight ratio and excellent energy absorption. Although literature suggests that intrinsic material structures at sub-ligament length scales (e.g., grains and precipitates) play an important role in mechanical behavior of open-cell metal foams, there are very few experimental measurements of such structures in three dimensions and for meaningful volumes of foam. This study seeks to map and track the three-dimensional (3D) grain and precipitate structures of an intact volume of open-cell aluminum foam by advancing microstructural characterization techniques that leverage X-ray micro-computed tomography (μCT) and far-field high-energy X-ray diffraction microscopy (FF-HEDM). A 6%-relative-density aluminum foam sample was mechanically tested in compression while μCT and FF-HEDM measurements were collected at interrupted loading states at beamline 1-ID of the Advanced Photon Source. Further, a new scanning strategy and reconstruction algorithm were established to enable characterization of a foam volume with diameter approximately four times wider than the nominal width of the X-ray beam. The result is a set of maps that detail both the 3D grain and precipitate structures throughout the foam volume at successive strain steps. A novel grain tracking procedure was developed to track individual grains within the foam volume by accounting for the large rigid-body motions that individual ligaments can undergo during mechanical loading. The ability to track grains and precipitate structures in three dimensions throughout large bulk deformation of ultra-low-density polycrystalline materials enables new possibilities for validating numerical models and investigating local failure mechanisms. Furthermore, the methods and procedures developed in this study could be applied to other ultra-low-density structures, such as additively manufactured lattices.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

In Space Manufacturing and Extraterrestrial Construction: How Did We Get Here?Where Are We? Where Should We Be Going? THE CHALLENGE: Will We Be Ready?

NASA has held multiple workshops and sought inputs from a broad spectrum of sources, including international partners, other space agencies, industry, large and small businesses, academia, and private citizens to develop its Moon to Mars Strategy and Objectives. The goals and objectives set forth in the resulting documents are “designed to achieve the vision to create a blueprint for sustained human presence and exploration throughout the solar system.” The objectives were categorized into four distinct tracks: Operations, Infrastructure, Transportation and Habitation, and Science. In addition, common themes across the objectives were captured under Recurring Tenets. Within the Infrastructure category, several objectives directly address the need for manufacturing and construction on the lunar surface to support continuous human lunar presence and a robust lunar economy. In exploring the vision for creation of on-demand infrastructure on the lunar surface and beyond, this presentation will examine the development of these capabilities, starting in the late 1990’s and early 2000’s, up to the current state, and offer a perspective on the challenges facing operational implementation of these technologies. In the early 2000’s, the destination was the Moon. The International Space Station (ISS) was to be the test bed for demonstration of in space manufacturing technologies. Additive construction was in its infancy. These pioneering initiatives, having begun primarily under NASA’s Office of Biological and Physical Research In Situ Fabrication and Repair (ISFAR) Project, were short-lived. It was not until the early 2010’s that in space manufacturing and later extraterrestrial construction experienced renewed interest and support. At this time, the destination was Mars. This period saw the initial in space additive manufacturing experiments on the ISS, creation of a roadmap for development of in space manufacturing technologies, and development of additive construction systems for terrestrial use at scale. The period also included NASA’s 3D Printed Mars Habitat Centennial Challenge, which catalyzed interest in extraterrestrial construction. With NASA’s announcement of the intention to return to the Moon, and the subsequent release of the Artemis Accords in 2020, and the commensurate Moon to Mars Strategy, NASA’s Space Technology Mission Directorate initiated the Lunar Surface Innovation Initiative (LSII). The LSII has spurred technology development and maturation efforts across a spectrum of capabilities that would be needed to live on the lunar surface. The presentation will provide an overview of current technology developments in the areas of in space manufacturing and extraterrestrial construction. Looking forward from the current state, a perspective will be offered on capabilities that are still needed to “institutionalize” in space manufacturing and extraterrestrial construction to achieve the vision of NASA’s Moon to Mars Strategy. Finally, a challenge will be posed to the community to accelerate the development of these capabilities. When the explorers of the future need these enabling capabilities, will they be ready?

Raymond G Clinton Jr.↗

DOE OSTI2020

Tracking the Influence of Thermal Expansion and Oxygen Vacancies on the Thermal Stability of Ni-Rich Layered Cathode Materials

The ever-growing demand for high-energy lithium-ion batteries in portable electronics and electric vehicles has triggered intensive research efforts over the past decade. An efficient strategy to boost the energy and power density of lithium-ion batteries is to increase the Ni content in the cathode materials. However, a higher Ni content in the cathode materials gives rise to safety issues. Herein, thermal expansion and oxygen vacancies are proposed as new critical factors that affect the thermal stability of charged Ni-rich cathode materials based on a systematic synchrotron-based X-ray study of Li 0.33 Ni 0.5+x Co 0.2 Mn 0.3-x O 2 (x = 0, 0.1, 0.2) cathode materials during a heating process. Charged cathode materials with higher Ni contents show larger thermal expansion, which accelerates transition metal migration to the Li layers. Oxygen vacancies are formed and accumulate mainly around Ni ions until the layered-to-spinel phase transition begins. The oxygen vacancies also facilitate transition metal migration to the Li layers. Thermal expansion and the presence of oxygen vacancies decrease the energy barrier for cation migration and facilitate the phase transitions in charged cathode materials during the heating process. These results provide valuable guidance for developing new cathode materials with improved safety characteristics.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

DOE OSTI2020

Enhancing sensitivities to long-lived particles with high granularity calorimeters at the LHC

The search for long-lived particles (LLP) is an exciting physics opportunity in the upcoming runs of the Large Hadron Collider. In this paper, we focus on a new search strategy of using the High Granularity Calorimeter (HGCAL), part of the upgrade of the CMS detector, in such searches. In particular, we demonstrate that the high granularity of the calorimeter allows us to see “shower tracks” in the calorimeter, and can play a crucial role in identifying the signal and suppressing the background. We study the potential reach of the HGCAL using a signal model in which the Standard Model Higgs boson decays into a pair of LLPs, h → XX. After carefully estimating the Standard Model QCD and the misreconstructed fake-track backgrounds, we give the projected reach for both an existing vector boson fusion trigger and a novel displaced-track-based trigger. Our results show that the best reach for the Higgs decay branching ratio, BR(h → XX), in the vector boson fusion channel is about O(10 –4 ) with lifetime cτ X ~ 0.1–1 meters, while for the gluon gluon fusion channel it is about O(10 –5 – 10 –6 ) for similar lifetimes. For longer lifetime cτ X ~ 103 meters, our search could probe BR(h → XX) down to a few ×10 –4 (10 –2 ) in the gluon gluon fusion (vector boson fusion) channels, respectively. In comparison with these previous searches, our new search shows enhanced sensitivity in complementary regions of the LLP parameter space. We also comment on many improvements can be implemented to further improve our proposed search.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗

DOE OSTI2025

In situ high-temperature Raman spectroscopy for online EAF slag analysis

Real-time monitoring of slag chemistry is critical for optimizing Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) steelmaking operations, where dynamic variations in slag composition directly influence slag foaming, refractory degradation, and thermal efficiency. Conventional techniques such as X-ray fluorescence (XRF), Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR), and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) are commonly used to analyze slag composition, but their offline nature and equipment constraints limit their applicability for online monitoring in harsh industrial environments. To address this challenge, we present an in situ, high-temperature analytical approach that integrates Raman spectroscopy with a custom designed fiber-optic probe for real-time slag characterization at 1550 °C. The system enables non destructive spectral acquisition from molten slags, providing molecular-level insights into silicate polymerization and iron oxidation states. Eight synthetic slag samples were evaluated, and key Raman features—such as Q n silicate units and FeO₄/FeO₆ coordination environments—were identified and quantitatively correlated with slag basicity and Fe₂O₃ content. The results demonstrate agreement between Raman spectral ratios and bulk slag chemistry, validating the method’s capability to track compositional and structural changes under molten temperature. This work establishes the feasibility of deploying fiber-optic Raman probe for online EAF slag monitoring and highlights their potential to support closed-loop control strategies, thereby enhancing process stability, refractory protection, and steel quality in industrial steelmaking applications.

47 OTHER INSTRUMENTATION↗

DOE OSTI2026

DIVA/DeviceEditor v6.1.2

DIVA is an end-to-end DNA design and construction management platform that streamlines how researchers design, build, and receive sequence-verified DNA constructs. Through a web-based BioCAD interface (DeviceEditor), researchers independently design DNA constructs and submit them to a centralized queue with a single action. Designs progress transparently through standardized states which allow researchers to track status and access finished constructs via a central DNA repository. Submitted designs are reviewed by dedicated staff for feasibility and optimization, reducing costly failures and improving downstream execution. Automated DNA assembly software optimizes construction strategies by reusing existing parts where possible and sourcing synthetic DNA only when needed. Standardized, sequence-agnostic assembly methods enable many independent constructs to be built in parallel using lab automation, dramatically increasing throughput. High-throughput next-generation sequencing is used to verify construct accuracy, with flexible platforms selected based on task requirements. Throughout the process, detailed success and failure data are captured and analyzed, enabling continuous improvement of assembly protocols. Compared to traditional, manual DNA construction workflows, DIVA offers higher scalability, transparency, reproducibility, and data-driven optimization.

Plahar, Hector [Lawrence Berkeley National Laborat↗

NASA NTRS1988

Prediction and measurement of human pilot dynamic characteristics in a manned rotorcraft simulation

An analytical and experimental study of the human pilot control strategies in a manned rotorcraft simulation is described. The task simulated involves a low-speed, constant-altitude maneuvering task in which a head-down display is utilized to allow the pilot to track a moving hover point. The efficacy of the display law driving an acceleration symbol is determined and the manner in which the prediction and measurement of pilot/vehicle dynamics can be made part of man/machine system evaluations is demonstrated.

Hess, Ronald A.↗

NASA NTRS1988

Prediction and measurement of human pilot dynamic characteristics

An analytical and experimental study of human pilot control strategies in a manned rotorcraft simulation is described. The task simulated involves a low-speed, constant-altitude maneuvering task in which a head-down display is utilized to allow the pilot to track a moving hover point. The efficacy of the display law driving an 'acceleration symbol' is determined and the manner in which the prediction and measurement of pilot/vehicle dynamics can be made part of man/machine system evaluations is demonstrated.

Hess, Ronald A.↗

NASA NTRS2004

Risk Management Implementation Tool

Continuous Risk Management (CM) is a software engineering practice with processes, methods, and tools for managing risk in a project. It provides a controlled environment for practical decision making, in order to assess continually what could go wrong, determine which risk are important to deal with, implement strategies to deal with those risk and assure the measure effectiveness of the implemented strategies. Continuous Risk Management provides many training workshops and courses to teach the staff how to implement risk management to their various experiments and projects. The steps of the CRM process are identification, analysis, planning, tracking, and control. These steps and the various methods and tools that go along with them, identification, and dealing with risk is clear-cut. The office that I worked in was the Risk Management Office (RMO). The RMO at NASA works hard to uphold NASA s mission of exploration and advancement of scientific knowledge and technology by defining and reducing program risk. The RMO is one of the divisions that fall under the Safety and Assurance Directorate (SAAD). I worked under Cynthia Calhoun, Flight Software Systems Engineer. My task was to develop a help screen for the Continuous Risk Management Implementation Tool (RMIT). The Risk Management Implementation Tool will be used by many NASA managers to identify, analyze, track, control, and communicate risks in their programs and projects. The RMIT will provide a means for NASA to continuously assess risks. The goals and purposes for this tool is to provide a simple means to manage risks, be used by program and project managers throughout NASA for managing risk, and to take an aggressive approach to advertise and advocate the use of RMIT at each NASA center.

Wright, Shayla L.↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Real-Time Considerations for A Source-Time Dominant Auralization Scheme

A well-designed recording system can capture a moving source without risk of distortions, knowledge of the source or path, or transmission of information back to the source (i.e., a smartphone can reasonably record a plane flying overhead). This necessarily happens in real time. It would be good if signal processing schemes for auralization possessed these properties. Recent work on the NoTAP method of auralization proposed an asynchronous sample rate conversion scheme that keeps track of the (nonuniform) rate of incoming samples to formulate an effective incoming sampling frequency. This value allows the method to predict what frequency regions at the receiver are vulnerable to aliasing or imaging artifacts. Strategies of oversampling and filtering can be used to eliminate these problem regions while preserving as much of the original content as possible given the desired receiver sampling frequency. This approach creates a situation where the receiver processing can run independently of the source/path processing making it attractive for real-time implementation. This presentation discusses the challenges associated with producing a truly real-time scheme. A three-way tradeoff emerges between an interpolation mechanism that generates decorrelated noise, the computational burden, and the nearness to absolute real-time with which one wants the scheme to run.

Auralization↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

From CMS to the U.S. Greenhouse Gas Center – Improved Tracking of Recent Changes in Co 2 and Ch 4 From NASA’s Quasi-Operational Modeling Systems

Reliable, low latency delivery of high quality global flux and concentration information is a growing but still unmet need to advance expanding measurement, monitoring, reporting, and verification efforts that underpin federal climate mitigation strategies. Here we present on progress toward developing space-based greenhouse gas (GHG) monitoring systems that can provide comprehensive information trailing real time by a matter of weeks to a few months. Through support from its Carbon Monitoring System (CMS) program, NASA has developed the capability to assimilate XCO 2 retrievals from the Orbiting Carbon Observatory, 2 (OCO 2 ) into the Goddard Earth Observing System (GEOS) Constituent Data Assimilation System (CoDAS) to create gap-filled, three-dimensional (3D) estimates of CO 2 mixing ratio. When observations are unavailable, concentration fields are further informed by observationally-informed bottom-up flux packages that incorporate remotely sensed fire, nighttime lights, and vegetation observations combined with estimates of atmospheric growth rate based on surface in situ data. The 3D nature of these datasets supports evaluation with independent aircraft data to improve confidence in satellite data, development of new regional modeling approaches, and quantification of the climate impacts of GHGs. The system has recently been expanded to assimilate XCH 4 from ESA’s TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) instrument and is supported by companion efforts to improve delivery of estimates of bottom-up land and ocean fluxes. The quasi-operational GEOS-GHG system is contributing to the recently announced U.S. Greenhouse Gas Center (GHG Center) by delivering information on recent changes in CO 2 and CH 4 emissions and concentrations to support stakeholder and research communities. In this presentation, we provide an overview of the current system configured to support the GHG Center. We highlight examples of how this data contributes to broader NASA initiatives including the Earth Information Center, an innovative virtual and physical exhibit designed to show how NASA data helps the nation combat climate change. We conclude by discussing how innovations in CMS research can address remaining data gaps and modeling challenges to advance operational GHG monitoring in the future.

Lesley Ott↗

DOE OSTI2023

New techniques for jet calibration with the ATLAS detector

A determination of the jet energy scale is presented using proton–proton collision data with a centre-of-mass energy of $\sqrt{s}$ = 13 TeV, corresponding to an integrated luminosity of 140 fb -1 collected using the ATLAS detector at the LHC. Jets are reconstructed using the ATLAS particle-flow method that combines charged-particle tracks and topo-clusters formed from energy deposits in the calorimeter cells. The anti-k t jet algorithm with radius parameter R = 0.4 is used to define the jet. Novel jet energy scale calibration strategies developed for the LHC Run 2 are reported that lay the foundation for the jet calibration in Run 3. Jets are calibrated with a series of simulation-based corrections, including state-of-the-art techniques in jet calibration such as machine learning methods and novel in situ calibrations to achieve better performance than the baseline calibration derived using up to 81 fb -1 of Run 2 data. The performance of these new techniques is then examined in the in situ measurements by exploiting the transverse momentum balance between a jet and a reference object. The b -quark jet energy scale using particle flow jets is measured for the first time with around 1% precision using $\gamma$+jet events.

72 PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES AND FIELDS↗

NASA NTRS1991

Overconfidence, preview, and probability in strategic planning

The performance of eight subjects in a 'rescue' video game requiring choices as to which node they should fly to in order to rescue the simulated casualties is presently studied with a view to biases and display support criteria in strategic planning. After each choice, the subjects needed to fly a challenging tracking dynamic along a path to reach the next node. The results obtained indicate that the choices of the subjects were less optimal when full preview was offered, perhaps due to subjects' reliance on the simple strategy of choosing routes with the greatest number of casualties.

Wickens, Christopher D.↗