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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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DOE OSTI2021

Storage Futures Study: Distributed Solar and Storage Outlook: Methodology and Scenarios

This report is one in a series of NREL’s Storage Futures Study (SFS) publications. The SFS is a multiyear research project that explores the role and impact of energy storage in the evolution and operation of the U.S. power sector. The SFS is designed to examine the potential impact of energy storage technology advancement on the deployment of utility-scale storage and the adoption of distributed storage, and the implications for future power system infrastructure investment and operations. The research findings and supporting data will be published as a series of reports, with each report being released on its completion. The table below lists the specific research topics planned for examination under the SFS and the associated publication formats. This report, the fourth in the SFS series, provides a set of scenarios for cost-effectiveness and customer adoption for a range of scenarios that include future technology costs and valuation of backup power. The SFS series provides data and analysis in support of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Energy Storage Grand Challenge, a comprehensive program to accelerate the development, commercialization, and utilization of next-generation energy storage technologies and sustain American global leadership in energy storage. The Energy Storage Grand Challenge employs a use case framework to ensure storage technologies can cost-effectively meet specific needs, and it incorporates a broad range of technologies in several categories: electrochemical, electromechanical, thermal, flexible generation, flexible buildings, and power electronics. More information, any supporting data associated with this report, links to other reports in the series, and other information about the broader study are available at https://www.nrel.gov/analysis/storage-futures.html.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Nine Canyon Long-Duration Energy Storage: A Feasibility Study

The Nine Canyon Long Duration Energy Storage (LDES) Feasibility Study explores the technical and economic viability of deploying advanced energy storage technologies at Energy Northwest's (EN) Nine Canyon (9C) Wind Project site in Benton County, Washington. Supported by the Washington State Department of Commerce and the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Electricity under its LDES Voucher Program, the study represents a collaborative effort between EN, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), and ARES North America. At the core of this effort is the development of a generalized techno-economic modeling framework and evaluation tool designed to assess the value proposition of LDES projects across a variety of contexts. The modeling tool is technology-agnostic and accommodates user-defined parameters such as rated power, energy duration, round-trip efficiency, capital and operational costs, and dispatch constraints. It also integrates economic inputs, including market prices, energy revenue structures, and financing parameters to evaluate performance through key metrics. The tool provides utilities with a transparent, adaptable platform to support decision-making, investment prioritization, and portfolio planning for various storage technologies. To guide scenario design and interpretation, the study first surveyed the LDES technology landscape, including lithium-ion batteries, flow batteries, non-hydro gravity storage, and thermo-mechanical systems, comparing cost trajectories, technical performance, safety and hazards, materials sourcing and recyclability, and spatial/siting considerations. This literature-grounded review highlights technology trade-offs and reinforces the need to align technology choice with site characteristics, use cases, and project objectives. A companion chapter examines ownership structures (EN ownership, third-party ownership, shared models) and offtake options (energy marketing, capacity/energy PPAs, time-of-use PPAs, block-delivery PPAs, and tolling), where PPAs (power purchase agreements) represent contractual arrangements for buying and selling electricity. The chapter also highlights implications for risk allocation, capital access, operational control, and revenue certainty. The study also evaluates supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) and transmission interconnection pathways, options include upgrading the existing SCADA or deploying a dedicated LDES controller, with attention to protection schemes, data telemetry, cybersecurity, and regulatory coordination with BPA. In addition, an ARES-specific geotechnical and hydrology assessment presented in the appendix screens multiple corridors for slope stability, bearing capacity, cut-and-fill magnitude, and stormwater behavior.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Storage Futures Study: Storage Technology Modeling Input Data Report

The Storage Futures Study (SFS) is a multiyear research project to explore the role and impact of energy storage in the evolving electricity sector of the United States. The SFS is designed to examine the potential impact of energy storage technology advancement on the deployment of utility-scale storage and the adoption of distributed storage, and the implications for future power system infrastructure investment and operations. This specific report synthesizes current and projected cost performance assumptions along with location availability for storage technologies through 2050 that will be used in scenario analysis for the SFS at both the bulk power and distribution system scales. For comparison and context, this report also presents a synthesis of current cost and performance characteristics of energy storage technologies for storage durations ranging from minutes to months and including mechanical, thermal, and electrochemical storage technologies for the electricity sector. This information is intended to cover a broad range of storage technologies that are currently receiving significant attention from the investment community as well as in the media. In the report, we emphasize that energy storage technologies must be described in terms of both their power (kilowatts [kW]) capacity and energy (kilowatt-hours [kWh]) capacity to assess their costs and potential use cases.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Long Duration Energy Storage Viability Survey

Energy storage technologies that can economically store and provide electricity over multi-day and seasonal timescales are likely to be a critical component of a sustainable and resilient energy system. This analysis performs a broad survey of energy storage technologies to find storage media that are promising for these long-duration energy storage applications.

levelized cost of storage↗
DOE OSTI2025

Porous and Amorphous Mn x Mo 3 S 13 Chalcogel Electrode for High-Capacity Conversion-Based Lithium-Ion Batteries

While Li-ion batteries (LIBs) are a leading energy storage technology, their energy densities are limited by the low capacity of conventional intercalation cathodes, driving interest in high energy-density Li–S batteries that make use of conversion chemistry. Achieving high capacity, reversibility, and cycle stability, and controlling volume changes in conversion batteries during the charge–discharge process, however, remains challenging. Here, in this study, we present a porous, amorphous, sulfide-based Mn x Mo 3 S 13 chalcogel, which concurrently offers high capacity and cycle stability. The solution-processable room temperature synthesized Mn x Mo 3 S 13 (x = 0.25) chalcogel exhibits a local structure that resembles the Mo 3 S 13 cluster with Mn 2+ distributed across the Mo 3 S 13 matrix, as determined by synchrotron X-ray pair distribution function (PDF) and extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS). Ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) simulations reveal that Mn 2+ incorporation shortens the polysulfide chain in the gel matrix compared to the Mo 3 S 13 chalcogel, while forming a coordination environment with disulfide groups, analogous to the experimental findings. A Li/Mn 0.25 Mo 3 S 13 half-cell delivers 897 mAh g –1 capacity during the first discharge and retains 571 mAh g –1 capacity after 100 cycles at a C/3 rate. Distribution of relaxation time (DRT) unveils a stable solid–electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation upon cycling that enables charge–discharge reversibility. Here, the enhanced capacity retention and cycle stability compared to those of the Li/Mo 3 S 13 cell are attributed to the reduced dissolution of active mass into the electrolyte, facilitated by the formation of shorter polysulfide chains within the Mn 0.25 Mo 3 S 13 structure and the strong affinity of Lewis-acidic Mn 2+ for polysulfide anions generated during the charge–discharge process of the Li/Mn 0.25 Mo 3 S 13 cell. Thus, this work illustrates a design principle of material for high-capacity and cycle-stable Li-metal sulfide batteries.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2024

Development of Low-Cost, High-Performance, Easy-To-Apply, Non-Flammable, Inorganic Phase Change Material (PCM) Technology (Project Final Report)

This report describes a 45-months long research program focused on the development of novel, easy-to-apply, non-flammable, and high-performance inorganic phase change materials (PCMs) for building and industrial applications. The University of Massachusetts Lowell (UML) formed a world-class team consisting of researchers form InsolCorp (only N. American manufacturer of inorganic PCM systems for building applications), and a group of industrial advisors, to develop a universal/multipurpose, simple-to-manufacture and cost-effective PCM technology. The project team expects that the results of this work will spur in the future the adoption of thermal storage materials – a key building energy saving technology as identified by DOE BTO – for a variety of building envelope applications. The main goal of this project was to demonstrate a suite of low-cost, multipurpose, and durable inorganic PCM formulations with phase transition temperatures encompassing typical building applications (between +5 o C and +55 o C). The first objective was to design, fabricate, and experimentally validate a performance of inexpensive, durable, highly efficient, non-flammable, and easy to manufacture PCMs. To allow a variety of building applications, the project team focused on formulations that exhibit repeatable phase transitions between +5 o C and +55 o C. To follow the DOE BTO cost efficiency target without compromising thermal performance, our work was based on inorganic compounds (mostly salt hydrates) and their blends, which represent a fraction of the cost of most of organic PCMs with about twice as high density as well as significantly higher thermal conductivity and phase change enthalpy. The second objective was to develop easy-to-manufacture and -install packaging/encapsulation designs that are 1) a superior barrier to current state-of-the-art macro-packaging, which significantly reduces the risk of loss of hydration water and PCM leak, and 2) optimal in enhancing the heat exchange rates with the surroundings and within the PCM core to ensure complete charging/discharging of the entire PCM within the product. Finally, the project’s intend was to scale-up the fabrication process to demonstrate installation on system-scale applications, and to validate the performance under field conditions. This work aimed at developing low-cost, high-energy storage, and reliable latent heat storage technology for building applications. This development was realized by formulating and integrating the following two technology components: 1) inorganic salt hydrate based PCMs that have high latent enthalpies and are low-cost and durable, and 2) PCM encapsulation (packaging) technology that maximizes PCM concentration and enhances heat transport characteristics in the product and with the external environment/materials. High thermal storage capacity, low cost and fire resistance are key to the building market entry for PCM technology. Therefore, the project’s focus was on salt-hydrate-based formulations which satisfy all these criteria. Packaging and/or encapsulation of PCM is a key processing step. The project team recognized that a low-cost and simple-to-manufacture salt hydrate-based PCM technology holds the best chance to be successful in the building construction market, a market which is traditionally extremely sensitive to cost and where commodity thermal insulations are the benchmark for envelope-related energy saving measures. That is why, in this project, the main intention was to minimize the production cost and maximize the product energy storage density without sacrificing the PCM performance. It was achieved through: 1. Minimizing the non-PCM components (plastics, additives, packaging/encapsulation materials, etc.) because they are significantly more expensive than salt hydrates, 2. Using highly thermally conductive and lightweight PCM carrier (packaging material) to facilitate more complete phase cycling, and 3. Optimizing the thickness and minimizing air spaces in product design (such as in pouched PCM). For this purpose, our approach was to enable an easy system design, including selection of the PCM operating temperatures, optimizing the necessary heat storage capacity (by stacking together several layers of PCM products), and if needed, a synchronized usage of PCM products of different temperatures. A specially designed, robust, highly thermally conducting and highly impermeable packaging (to retain salt hydrate water during phase transition cycles) was designed and tested to increase the overall system thermal performance and durability. All PCM products developed during this project were tested in both lab scale and in full scale field conditions. It is expected that, after further developments and commercialization, the developed PCM technologies may be also applied in space conditioning, energy storage technologies, and heat transfer applications.

32 ENERGY CONSERVATION, CONSUMPTION, AND UTILIZATI↗
DOE OSTI2023

2023 roadmap for potassium-ion batteries

Abstract The heavy reliance of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) has caused rising concerns on the sustainability of lithium and transition metal and the ethic issue around mining practice. Developing alternative energy storage technologies beyond lithium has become a prominent slice of global energy research portfolio. The alternative technologies play a vital role in shaping the future landscape of energy storage, from electrified mobility to the efficient utilization of renewable energies and further to large-scale stationary energy storage. Potassium-ion batteries (PIBs) are a promising alternative given its chemical and economic benefits, making a strong competitor to LIBs and sodium-ion batteries for different applications. However, many are unknown regarding potassium storage processes in materials and how it differs from lithium and sodium and understanding of solid–liquid interfacial chemistry is massively insufficient in PIBs. Therefore, there remain outstanding issues to advance the commercial prospects of the PIB technology. This Roadmap highlights the up-to-date scientific and technological advances and the insights into solving challenging issues to accelerate the development of PIBs. We hope this Roadmap aids the wider PIB research community and provides a cross-referencing to other beyond lithium energy storage technologies in the fast-pacing research landscape.

Xu, Yang (ORCID:0000000301776348)↗
DOE OSTI2024

Industrial Energy Storage Review

As the United States moves to net-zero carbon emission by 2050, a transition to renewable energy generation is required. However, the variable nature of renewable energy generation at high penetrations can cause imbalances in generation and transmission of electricity. These imbalances can be circumvented by the deployment of energy storage. Global industrial energy storage is projected to grow 2.6 times in the coming decades, from just over 60 GWh to 167 GWh in 2030. The challenge is to balance energy storage capabilities with the power and energy needs for particular industrial applications. Energy storage technologies can be classified by the form of the stored energy. The most common forms include thermal, chemical, electrochemical, and mechanical storage technologies. The most appropriate storage technology will depend on the unique energy needs of the industrial application. The purpose of this report is to provide a review of energy storage technologies relevant to the U.S. industrial sector, highlighting the applications in industry that will benefit from increased integration of energy storage, as well as the respective challenges and opportunities unique to integrating different storage technologies.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Ionomers for electrochemical energy conversion & storage technologies

We report ionomers, which are used as polymer electrolyte membranes as well as catalyst binders in membrane electrode assemblies, are a key component of electrochemical energy conversion and storage technologies such as fuel cells, electrolyzers, and flow batteries. The use of ionomers in these clean energy technologies has a long history and there has been considerable progress in developing low-cost, high-performance ionomers in recent years. In this review article, we discuss some highlights from recent developments of ionomers with emphasis on chemically stable, mechanically durable, high-performance hydrocarbon ionomers and their state-of-the-art performance in electrochemical energy conversion devices. Future directions of ionomer research that are important to enhance our understanding and the remaining challenges related to device level applications are addressed.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Experimental Characterization of High-Surface Area Thermal Energy Storage

There is growing interest in energy storage technologies due to the expansion of renewable energy sources that are inherently intermittent and the increasing frequency of extreme weather events that disturb the power grid. Power consumption in buildings makes up approximately 76% of all electricity usage on the grid and is primarily used for thermal applications such as space conditioning, hot water, and cooking. This makes thermal energy storage (TES) an ideal solution for many of these applications. Many TES technologies rely on latent energy storage, which utilizes the melting/solidification of phase change materials (PCM) to store energy. Typically, TES designs suffer from low power density due to their low inherent thermal conductivity. This limitation makes the deployment of TES in active applications difficult as the ease of access to energy is essential for effective use. Common routes for improving power density include high thermal conductivity additives or extended features such as fins that increase cost. This study presents an alternative approach to improving performance through increasing the overall surface area to volume ratio of the device, to increase the available area for convection to occur between the working fluid and PCM. In the study a commercial PCM was selected with a transition temperature ideal for space heating applications. The heat exchanger design utilizes a unique application of triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMS) for macro-encapsulation of the PCM. The use of TPMS for heat exchangers has been growing in interest due to their high-surface area to volume ratios, which were previously unmanufacturable until the development of additive manufacturing. A modular system was designed and manufactured with a stereolithography resin printing system that is then backfilled with PCM. An experiment test set-up is designed to test the charge and discharge performance of the thermal storage using a conditioned air stream. The pressure drop of the design is tested across a variety of flow rates. When compared to existing experimental data within literature, there is excellent agreement based on the Reynolds number at similar hydraulic diameters. Several inlet temperatures are tested at consistent temperature differences from the phase change temperature for both charging and discharging. Additionally, the volumetric flow rate is varied for each temperature set point. It was found that increasing flow rate had diminishing returns in reducing the overall charge time of the TES. The temperature delta from the melting temperature was the primary contributor to the change in average heat flux with limited variation in average heat transfer rate between charging and discharging at similar inlet temperatures and flow rates. The TPMS heat exchanger design has a high air-side pressure drop but it provides high heat transfer rates. This helps maintain a high outlet temperature during discharge, which is important to thermal comfort applications. The design, manufacturing, and experimental characterization of the TES device will be presented as part of this study.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

2019 Energy Storage Pricing Survey

Since grid energy storage is still evolving rapidly, it is often difficult to obtain project specific capital costs for various energy storage technologies. This information is necessary to evaluate the profitability of the facility, as well as comparing different energy storage technology options. The goal of this report is to summarize energy storage capital costs that were obtained from industry pricing surveys. The methodology breaks down the cost of an energy storage system into the following component categories: the storage module; the balance of system; the power conversion system; the energy management system; and the engineering, procurement, and construction costs. By evaluating each of the different component costs separately, a synthetic system cost can be developed that provides internal pricing consistency between different project sizes using the same technology, as well as between different technologies that utilize similar components.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Benefit Analysis of Long-Duration Energy Storage in Power Systems with High Renewable Energy Shares

The integration of high shares of variable renewable energy raises challenges for the reliability and cost-effectiveness of power systems. The value of long-duration energy storage, which helps address variability in renewable energy supply across days and seasons, is poised to grow significantly as power systems shift to larger shares of variable generation such as wind and solar. This study explores the system-level services and associated benefits of long-duration energy storage on the 2050 Western Interconnection (WI). The operation of the future WI system with 85% renewable penetration is simulated using a two-stage production cost model. The impact of long duration energy storage on systemwide operations is examined for the 2050 WI system, using a range of round-trip efficiencies corresponding to four different energy storage technologies. The analysis projects the energy storage dispatch profile, system-wide production cost savings (from both diurnal and seasonal operation), and impacts on generation mix, and change in renewable generation curtailment.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Compensation for Long-Duration Energy Storage

Rapidly changing power system conditions, driven by decarbonization goals, are leading to significant growth in renewable energy sources, which can be both variable and uncertain. This has been accompanied with increased reliance on and rapid growth in deployment of energy storage technologies. Currently, approximately 90% of installed, utility-scale energy storage capacity in the United States comes from pumped storage hydropower (PSH). However, development of new PSH has been limited and all recent growth in energy storage has come from batteries, , especially as technology costs have decreased over the years. Most of the current deployment still remains in the form of short-duration (<6 hours) energy storage technologies; the average duration of new storage was 3.7 hours for projects deployed in the first half of 2021 (Wood Mackenzie and Energy Storage Association 2021).

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Energy Storage for Manufacturing and Industrial Decarbonization (Energy StorM)

This report summarizes the needs, challenges, and opportunities associated with carbon-free energy and energy storage for manufacturing and industrial decarbonization. Energy needs and challenges for different manufacturing and industrial sectors (e.g., cement/steel production, chemicals, materials synthesis) are identified. Key issues for industry include the need for large, continuous on-site capacity (tens to hundreds of megawatts), compatibility with existing infrastructure, cost, and safety. Energy storage technologies that can potentially address these needs, which include electrochemical, thermal, and chemical energy storage, are presented along with key challenges, gaps, and integration issues. Analysis tools to value energy storage technologies in the context of manufacturing and industrial decarbonizations are also presented. Material is drawn from the Energy Storage for Manufacturing and Industrial Decarbonization (Energy StorM) Workshop, held February 8 - 9, 2022. The objective was to identify research opportunities and needs for the U.S. Department of Energy as part of its Energy Storage Grand Challenge program.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Illinois Compressed Air Energy Storage

Compressed Air Storage Energy (CAES) is one of the few mid- technology readiness level (TRL) energy storage technologies that can address the long-duration infrastructure needed for dealing with variable electric output from renewable energy sources and be reliable backup source for replacing natural gas during supply interruptions. In CAES the goal is to capture and store compressed air in subsurface sedimentary strata when off-peak power is available, or there is a need for grid balancing. The stored high-pressure air is returned to the surface and used to power turbines during reductions in either renewable energy or supply issues with fossil fuels. The Illinois CAES project evaluates the feasibility of capturing surplus electrical energy from renewable sources and off-peak energy at a fossil fuel power plant at the University of Illinois Urbana - Champaign (UIUC) campus. The UIUC Abbott Power Plant uses natural gas and coal to generate electricity (capacity: 35 MWe by coal and 49 MWe by NG). UIUC receives additional electricity from on campus solar farm, and off-campus wind farm. Also, UIUC offsets electricity usage by integrating geothermal energy systems into building heating Also, UIUC offsets steam, hot and chilled water usage by integrating geothermal energy systems into building heating and cooling systems. Furthermore, the two UIUC solar farms (Solar Farm 1 is 21 acres and Solar Farm 2 is 54 acres) to generate 4.68 megawatts (MW) and 12.1 MW, respectively. Campus receives 8.6% of the wind-generated electricity from the Rail Splitter Wind Farm. The project objectives were to design an integrated system to 1) capture surplus electrical energy from renewable sources and the Abbott Power Plant using a CAES system, 2) store both the compressed air and the thermal heat generated by compression in the subsurface as part of an adiabatic system, 3) simulate the movement of the air and heat in the subsurface, 4) recover the compressed air and stored thermal heat to rotate turbine generators during sustained interruption due to weather events or fossil fuel disruptions.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2022

Study of Codes & Standards for Energy Storage Systems: A Report to Congress

The Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (H.R. 3684, 2021) directed the Secretary of Energy to prepare a report identifying the existing codes and standards for energy storage technologies. The stated goals for the report are to enhance the safe development of energy storage systems by identifying codes that require updating and facilitation of greater conformity in codes across different types and usages of energy storage technologies. This paper will focus on the specific codes and standards for stationary energy storage systems (ESS).

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Pumped Storage Hydropower (PSH) FAST Commissioning Prize Technical Analysis

The US energy landscape has undergone major changes over the past 10 years and will continue to see significant changes in future decades as the power grid increases its reliance on variable renewable energy resources. Because of the inherent variability of these resources, renewable energy growth may require additional energy storage capacity to provide flexible load-following capabilities and other grid services that can quickly adjust to changes in energy demand and generation. Pumped storage hydropower (PSH)—one such energy storage technology—uses pumps to convey water from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir for energy storage and releases water back to the lower reservoir via a powerhouse for hydropower generation. PSH facility pump and generation cycling often follows economic and energy demand conditions. Across the United States, 43 PSH facilities are in operation and 55 projects are in various permitting or licensing stages. Altogether, the 43 operational projects provide the wide majority (95%) of utility-scale electricity storage in the United States. These facilities also provide significant power and nonpower grid benefits, including large-scale electrical system reserve capacity, grid reliability support, and electricity supply-demand balancing through quick-response capabilities and operational flexibility. PSH systems can accomplish these at a scale (e.g., size) and cost that makes these systems highly attractive from a technical standpoint. Although these research concepts are still in their infancy, they demonstrate promising potential as future PSH energy storage technologies. Although PSH has many advantages, development in the United States has effectively stalled since the 1990s, partially because of the magnitude of project costs and financing interest during development and construction, the length of time from project investment until project revenue begins, permitting challenges, construction risks, competition from other storage technologies (e.g., batteries, hydrogen storage), and electricity market evolution and uncertainty. In short, the time, cost, and risk associated with modern PSH development have resulted in limited growth in the United States recently, despite the growing energy storage demand stemming from increased wind and solar power deployment. Technology innovation is needed to help reduce PSH commissioning time, cost, and risk, particularly during the post-licensing phase of project development. To address challenges facing the PSH industry and to improve PSH commissioning timelines, the US Department of Energy (DOE) Water Power Technologies Office (WPTO) initiated the PSH Furthering Advancements to Shorten Time to (FAST) Commissioning Prize project.

13 HYDRO ENERGY↗