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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 55 records · Page 3
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2023

Biosynthesis of Haloterpenoids in Red Algae via Microbial-like Type I Terpene Synthases

Red algae or seaweeds produce highly distinctive halogenated terpenoid compounds, including the pentabromochlorinated monoterpene halomon that was once heralded as a promising anticancer agent. The first dedicated step in the biosynthesis of these natural product molecules is expected to be catalyzed by terpene synthase (TS) enzymes. Recent work has demonstrated an emerging class of type I TSs in red algal terpene biosynthesis. However, only one such enzyme from a notoriously haloterpenoid-producing red alga (Laurencia pacifica) has been functionally characterized and the product structure is not related to halogenated terpenoids. Herein, we report 10 new type I TSs from the red algae Portieria hornemannii, Plocamium pacificum, L. pacifica, and Laurencia subopposita that produce a diversity of halogenated mono- and sesquiterpenes. Here we used a combination of genome sequencing, terpenoid metabolomics, in vitro biochemistry, and bioinformatics to establish red algal TSs in all four species, including those associated with the selective production of key halogenated terpene precursors myrcene, trans-β-ocimene, and germacrene D-4-ol. These results expand on a small but growing number of characterized red algal TSs and offer insight into the biosynthesis of iconic halogenated algal compounds that are not without precedence elsewhere in biology.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Low-level resource partitioning supports coexistence among functionally redundant bacteria during successional dynamics

Members of microbial communities can substantially overlap in substrate use. However, what enables functionally redundant microorganisms to coassemble or even stably coexist remains poorly understood. Here, we show that during unstable successional dynamics on complex, natural organic matter, functionally redundant bacteria can coexist by partitioning low-concentration substrates even though they compete for one simple, dominant substrate. We allowed ocean microbial communities to self-assemble on leachates of the brown seaweed Fucus vesiculosus and then analyzed the competition among 10 taxonomically diverse isolates representing two distinct stages of the succession. All, but two isolates, exhibited an average of 90% ± 6% pairwise overlap in resource use, and functional redundancy of isolates from the same assembly stage was higher than that from between assembly stages, leading us to construct a simpler four-isolate community with two isolates from each of the early and late stages. We found that, although the short-term dynamics of the four-isolate communities in F. vesiculosus leachate was dependent on initial isolate ratios, in the long term, the four isolates stably coexist in F. vesiculosus leachate, albeit with some strains at low abundance. We therefore explored the potential for nonredundant substrate use by genomic content analysis and RNA expression patterns. This analysis revealed that the four isolates mainly differed in peripheral metabolic pathways, such as the ability to degrade pyrimidine, leucine, and tyrosine, as well as aromatic substrates. These results highlight the importance of fine-scale differences in metabolic strategies for supporting the frequently observed coexistence of large numbers of rare organisms in natural microbiomes.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Energy and nutrient recovery from municipal and industrial waste and wastewater—a perspective

This publication highlights the latest advancements in the field of energy and nutrient recovery from organics rich municipal and industrial waste and wastewater. Energy and carbon rich waste streams are multifaceted, including municipal solid waste, industrial waste, agricultural by-products and residues, beached or residual seaweed biomass from post-harvest processing, and food waste, and are valuable resources to overcome current limitations with sustainable feedstock supply chains for biorefining approaches. The emphasis will be on the most recent scientific progress in the area, including the development of new and innovative technologies, such as microbial processes and the role of biofilms for the degradation of organic pollutants in wastewater, as well as the production of biofuels and value-added products from organic waste and wastewater streams. The carboxylate platform, which employs microbiomes to produce mixed carboxylic acids through methane-arrested anaerobic digestion, is the focus as a new conversion technology. Nutrient recycling from conventional waste streams such as wastewater and digestate, and the energetic valorization of such streams will also be discussed. The selected technologies significantly contribute to advanced waste and wastewater treatment and support the recovery and utilization of carboxylic acids as the basis to produce many useful and valuable products, including food and feed preservatives, human and animal health supplements, solvents, plasticizers, lubricants, and even biofuels such as sustainable aviation fuel.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

High Nitrogen and Phosphorous Acquisition by Belowground Parts of Caulerpa prolifera (Chlorophyta) Contribute to the Species' Rapid Spread in Ria Formosa Lagoon, Southern Portugal

Despite worldwide proliferation of the genus Caulerpa and subsequent effects on benthic communities, little is known about the nutritional physiology of the Caulerpales. Here, we investigated the uptake rates of ammonium, nitrate, amino acids, and phosphate through the fronds and rhizoids + stolon, the internal translocation of nitrogen, and developed a nitrogen budget for the rapidly spreading Caulerpa prolifera in Ria Formosa lagoon, southern Portugal. Caulerpa prolifera acquired nutrients by both aboveground and belowground parts at similar rates, except nitrate, for which fronds showed 2‐fold higher uptake rates. Ammonium was the preferential nitrogen source (81% of the total nitrogen acquisition), and amino acids, which accounted for a significant fraction of total N acquisition (19%), were taken up at faster rates than nitrate. Basipetal translocation of 15 N incorporated as ammonium was nearly 3‐fold higher than acropetal translocation, whereas 15 N translocation as nitrate and amino acids was smaller but equal in either direction. The estimated total nitrogen acquisition by C. prolifera was 689 μmol · m −2 · h −1 , whereas the total nitrogen requirement for growth was 672 μmol · m −2 · h −1 . The uptake of ammonium and amino acids by belowground parts accounted for the larger fraction of the total nitrogen acquisition of C. prolifera and is sufficient to satisfy the species nitrogen requirements for growth. This may be one reason explaining the fast spreading of the seaweed in the bare sediments of Ria Formosa where it does not have any macrophyte competitors and the concentration of nutrients is high.

Alexandre, Ana↗
DOE OSTI2024

Comparative nutrient drawdown capacities of farmed kelps and implications of metabolic strategy and nutrient source

Abstract Seaweed aquaculture, particularly kelp farming, is a popular topic as a potential solution for mitigating anthropogenic pollutants and enhancing coastal drawdown of carbon and nitrogen. Using a common garden approach, this study evaluated nutrient drawdown capacities of Alaria marginata (ribbon kelp) and Saccharina latissima (sugar kelp) across four commercial kelp farms in Southeast and Southcentral Alaska. Our findings show that A. marginata exhibited ~30% more carbon and 21% more nitrogen content compared to S. latissima . These results demonstrate the potential for A. marginata to serve as a more efficient species for nutrient drawdown into farmed kelp tissues (per unit biomass) for consideration of potential mitigative actions. The efficacy of this drawdown is likely to be driven by the careful pairing of kelp species with farming environment. Temporally, there was a noted increase in carbon content and a decline in nitrogen content from March to May for both species, consistent with known seasonal nutrient dynamics in coastal waters. Notably, differences in the carbon stable isotope signatures (δ 13 C) between the kelps may hint at variations in metabolic pathways and nutrient sourcing, particularly concerning the preferential assimilation of CO 2 versus , and highlight the need for further work on this topic for applied macroalgal research.

Stephens, Tiffany↗
DOE OSTI2021

Understanding the metabolome and metagenome as extended phenotypes: The next frontier in macroalgae domestication and improvement

Abstract “ Omics” techniques (including genomics, transcriptomics, metabolomics, proteomics, and metagenomics) have been employed with huge success in the improvement of agricultural crops. As marine aquaculture of macroalgae expands globally, biologists are working to domesticate species of macroalgae by applying these techniques tested in agriculture to wild macroalgae species. Metabolomics has revealed metabolites and pathways that influence agriculturally relevant traits in crops, allowing for informed crop crossing schemes and genomic improvement strategies that would be pivotal to inform selection on macroalgae for domestication. Advances in metagenomics have improved understanding of host–symbiont interactions and the potential for microbial organisms to improve crop outcomes. There is much room in the field of macroalgal biology for further research toward improvement of macroalgae cultivars in aquaculture using metabolomic and metagenomic analyses. To this end, this review discusses the application and necessary expansion of the omics tool kit for macroalgae domestication as we move to enhance seaweed farming worldwide.

DeWeese, Kelly J.↗
DOE OSTI2020

Macroalgal germplasm banking for conservation, food security, and industry

Ex situ seed banking was first conceptualized and implemented in the early 20th century to maintain and protect crop lines. Today, ex situ seed banking is important for the preservation of heirloom strains, biodiversity conservation and ecosystem restoration, and diverse research applications. However, these efforts primarily target microalgae and terrestrial plants. Although some collections include macroalgae (i.e., seaweeds), they are relatively few and have yet to be connected via any international, coordinated initiative. In this piece, we provide a brief introduction to macroalgal germplasm banking and its application to conservation, industry, and mariculture. We argue that concerted effort should be made globally in germline preservation of marine algal species via germplasm banking with an overview of the technical advances for feasibility and ensured success.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2024

Investigating the relationship between microbial network features of giant kelp “seedbank” cultures and subsequent farm performance

Microbial inoculants can increase the yield of cultivated crops and are successful in independent trials; however, efficacy drops in large-scale applications due to insufficient consideration of microbial community dynamics. The structure of microbiomes, in addition to the impact of individual taxa, is an important factor to consider when designing growth-promoting inoculants. Here, we investigate the microbial network and community assembly patterns of Macrocystis pyrifera gametophyte germplasm cultures (collectively referred to as a “seedbank”) used to cultivate an offshore farm in Santa Barbara, California, and identify network features associated with increased biomass of mature sporophytes. We found that [1] several network features, such as clustering coefficient and edge ratios, significantly vary with biomass outcomes; [2] gametophytes that become low- or high-biomass sporophytes have different hub taxa; and [3] microbial community assembly of gametophyte germplasm cultures is niche-driven. Overall, this study describes microbial community dynamics in M . pyrifera germplasm cultures and ultimately supports the development of early life stage inoculants that can be used on seaweed cultivars to increase biomass yield.

Osborne, Melisa G. (ORCID:0000000154980057)↗
DOE OSTI2022

Marine Renewable Energy Applications for Restorative Ocean Farming: Kelp

Kelp farming and kelp forest restoration have both been proposed as a solution to locally decrease the impacts of ocean acidification and eutrophication, often with co-benefits to other forms of aquaculture and mariculture. Compared to global markets, the kelp industry in the United States is still in its early phases, with the first commercial kelp farm founded in Casco Bay, Maine in 2010. Since then, interest and effort in kelp production has been increasing, with farms now present in Maine, New Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts, New York, Washington, and Alaska. Many research projects are underway in the United States to explore benefits of 3D ocean farming, tackle logistical problems of working in the ocean, autonomous farming, and explore viable end uses for kelp products. In seaweed farming, to remove the stored carbon or excess nutrients from the system, the biomass needs to be harvested at the optimal time to avoid the release of CO 2 that comes with decomposition. Timing of the harvest is also important for maximum crop yield, which can vary based on the final product. Additional monitoring needs can include a variety of water quality metrics, growth measurements, and visuals to ensure the health of the farm, comply with permits, support operations and maintenance functions. The variables measured may vary by desired end use of the product, location of farm, and operational design. Monitoring all of these parameters requires specialized devices that can be costly and challenging to maintain. Monitoring devices often face power and logistical constraints that could prevent kelp farmers from adopting these technologies or receiving accurate, efficient monitoring to assess ecosystem benefits and valuation. Marine energy has been identified as a possible power source for these devices. This project investigates the power needs for conducting kelp farm environmental monitoring compared with the available marine energy resource to evaluate if locally generated ocean energy could provide a solution to these monitoring challenges and benefit kelp farmers. This process was structured as follows: 1. Define what data is needed for farmers and their communities through desk research and interviews with end users. 2. Identify sensors and power requirements currently in use or available for commercial purchase. 3. Analyze current kelp and other mariculture farm locations for the potential marine energy resource. 4. Analyze farm designs and associated structures to make recommendations for marine energy design. 5. Quantify value that investment in sensors could provide in terms of carbon credit possibilities.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2021

Life cycle of carbon in macroalgae for various products

This paper seeks to understand the life cycle and permanence of carbon sequestration for the many possible products of offshore cultivated macroalgae, compared to natural growth, habitat restoration, and intentional sinking. The paper will systematically review existing life cycle analyses (LCAs) for various macroalgae products to identify information gaps and compare the carbon sequestration potential throughout each product life cycle. The sequestration potential of macroalgae is well documented (e.g. Chung et al., 2011; Krause-Jensen & Duarte, 2016) but the permanence of the capture is not understood for harvested macroalgae or end products, which may or may not release the stored carbon dioxide in processing or consumption. This information is necessary to avoid overestimating the benefit and impacts of federal investment in large-scale seaweed aquaculture. The goal of this report is to: 1) Review published LCAs for various macroalgae products and uses; 2) Identify knowledge gaps (experiments and monitoring) to understand the flow of carbon on various time scales; 3) Develop preliminary ranking of macroalgae products by carbon capture effectiveness and permanence.

54 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2023

Coupled wave-current modeling for hydrodynamic load analysis of macroalgae cultivation farms

Large-scale cultivation of macroalgae is one of the most promising biofuel sources that could reduce our consumption of fossil fuels and would be particularly economically competitive when grown for the co-production of additional goods such as food and textiles. Current production of biofuel from algal biomass is limited by labor costs and lack of data on potential impacts of cultivation and harvesting on marine and coastal environments as well as a comprehensive characterization of the impact of environmental conditions on macroalgal feedstock and their bioproduct and biofuel yield and quality. Awarded by the United States (U.S.) Department of Energy Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) Macroalgae Research Inspiring Novel Energy Resources (MARINER) program, which seeks to enable the U.S. as a global leader in the production of marine biomass, the Marine Biological Laboratory (MBL) has been developing a test system for tropical seaweed cultivation in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. An integral step in designing macroalgae cultivation farms is to adequately characterize the hydrodynamic climate at potential growth sites. In regions like the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean, which are highly exposed to tropical cyclones, it is critical to not only consider the day-to-day hydrodynamic conditions but to also assess the risk of extreme sea states to ensure the survivability of future macroalgae farms. Under these considerations, the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) is providing modeling support for MBL to inform the design and siting of the farm systems that have been proposed for their ARPA-E MARINER project. This report describes the development of a high-resolution coupled storm surge and wave model to simulate the hydrodynamics and wave climate at proposed macroalgae cultivation sites selected by MBL in Florida and Puerto Rico. Model results, including model validation, water level, current distributions, and sea states, are discussed for both selected sites in Florida and Puerto Rico coast. These simulations provide an accurate insight into the hydrodynamic conditions that a macroalgae farm is likely to experience during its operational lifetime, including current information to support fine-scale hydrodynamic load modeling, risk analysis and system design.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Development of Scalable Coastal and Offshore Macroalgal Farming

The US DOE/ARPA-E MARINER program funded a four-year project to determine an optimal way to grow kelps in large, nearshore and offshore arrays for the eventual purpose of biofuel production with the goal of keeping the cost below $\$$80 USD per dry metric ton of kelp. This project specifically looked at how Saccharina latissima can be grown in the Gulf of Alaska to reach that goal. There were three major aspects of the research: 1) optimizing nursery production and seeding lines for outplanting, 2) designing an economical, modular outplanting structure and 3) developing methods to efficiently harvest the product. Farm designs were based on catenary structures and the use of spreader bars with variable spacing of grow lines and line types. The spacing of the grow lines makes a difference in the yield. Grow line spacing of ≥1.5m showed about a 50% increase in kg/m. There was no statistical difference in the growth of Saccharina latissima whether in the middle or the outside of the array, but the line type and perhaps line thickness can make a difference in yield. Sagging caused by the weight of the mature fronds resulted in lower growth at depth. Various harvesting approaches for mature kelps were tested by collaborating farmers. One promising innovation is the use of large bags for holding the freshly harvested fronds. Although the weight of the fronds on the growlines causes the lines to sink, the bags packed with the harvested fronds float, allowing for easy loading to the transfer vessel. Another advance in harvesting is a specially built harvest vessel, the Harvest Buddy, allowing a more mechanized and faster way to harvest. A significant aspect of this project was the TTO/T2M. Several different outreach activities were performed by the Alaska Fisheries Development Foundation and GreenWave. A techno-economic assessment (TEA) using our data has pointed to solutions to reach the $\$$80 goal. A second phase of this project involved the co-culture of two different species of kelps. Interest in farming kelps has grown beyond using kelp for food, feed or biofuels. There is considerable interest in generating biomass from seaweed for use in bioplastics and other products that would substitute for petroleum-derived products. For these uses to be viable, large amounts of biomass are needed. Very large kelp farms can be expensive to build and maintain, leading to the need to optimize the biomass per unit area. Although close spacing of growlines can lead to poor growth, a viable approach may be to grow two species of kelps together: one that hangs down and one that is buoyant, growing up. This system would increase the spacing in three dimensions. In Alaska, Saccharina latissima is commonly grown hanging down from longlines. One of the buoyant Alaskan kelps is Nereocystis luetkeana. Because there are commercial uses for wild-harvested Nereocystis in Alaska, we undertook a preliminary trial in Kodiak, Alaska that grew both Saccharina and Nereocystis in the same longline array. Closely spaced lines were seeded the first week of February 2023 and set at 3m below the surface. The arrays were harvested in late June 2023. Despite having 45% fewer grow-lines, the total yield of the Nereocystis on the combined arrays was statistically similar to the Nereocystis only arrays. Total yields were greatest on the combined arrays, followed by the Nereocystis only and Saccharina only arrays. These results may have significance for large scale macroalgal production.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Feasibility of Multi-Use Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) Platforms

Tropical islands and coastal communities in the United States and internationally suffer from high energy costs, unreliable electrical supplies, poverty, and underemployment, which are all being exacerbated by climate change. Multi-use Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) systems could align with the goals and values of these underserved and remote communities as scalable platforms that can provide baseload power, freshwater, and food, as well as potentially support new industries. The cold, nutrient-rich deep seawater needed for OTEC’s power cycles has many promising byproduct applications such as seawater air conditioning (SWAC) for residential and industrial cooling, enhancing aquaculture farms (e.g., cooling and nutrients for seaweed, shellfish, finfish), producing freshwater through desalination, and generating efuels such as ammonia and hydrogen.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗
DOE OSTI2023

Developing algae as a sustainable food source

Current agricultural and food production practices are facing extreme stress, posed by climate change and an ever-increasing human population. The pressure to feed nearly 8 billion people while maintaining a minimal impact on the environment has prompted a movement toward new, more sustainable food sources. For thousands of years, both the macro (seaweed and kelp) and micro (unicellular) forms of algae have been cultivated as a food source. Algae have evolved to be highly efficient at resource utilization and have proven to be a viable source of nutritious biomass that could address many of the current food production issues. Particularly for microalgae, studies of their large-scale growth and cultivation come from the biofuel industry; however, this knowledge can be reasonably translated into the production of algae-based food products. The ability of algae to sequester CO 2 lends to its sustainability by helping to reduce the carbon footprint of its production. Additionally, algae can be produced on non-arable land using non-potable water (including brackish or seawater), which allows them to complement rather than compete with traditional agriculture. Algae inherently have the desired qualities of a sustainable food source because they produce highly digestible proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates, and are rich in essential fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. Although algae have yet to be fully domesticated as food sources, a variety of cultivation and breeding tools exist that can be built upon to allow for the increased productivity and enhanced nutritional and organoleptic qualities that will be required to bring algae to mainstream utilization. Here we will focus on microalgae and cyanobacteria to highlight the current advancements that will expand the variety of algae-based nutritional sources, as well as outline various challenges between current biomass production and large-scale economic algae production for the food market.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗
DOE OSTI2022

Nitrogen and Carbon Removal Capacity by Farmed Kelp Alaria marginata and Saccharina latissima Varies by Species

An increasing body of evidence shows that seaweeds, including kelp, can be used as a tool to neutralize or remove excess nutrients and metals from the water column. Here we report on a preliminary field assessment showing potential nutrient and carbon removal differences in sugar kelp and ribbon kelp grown in common gardens. Seawater and tissue samples were collected systematically from two farms in Alaska. Results show differences between the %N and %C content between Alaria marginata and Saccharina latissima. Results also show that tissue nitrogen in ribbon kelp varies sharply due to nitrogen availability in the water column. In contrast, the percentage of tissue N in sugar kelp remains comparatively stable. Our outcomes provide insight into potential differences in nutrient removal and harvest timing for different kelp species.

Umanzor, Schery (ORCID:0000000238124565)↗
DOE OSTI2020

NREL's Capabilities in Algae-Based Chemicals, Polymers, and Fuels

NREL is advancing research and development (R&D) to maximize photosynthetic carbon capture into biomass for conversion to a broad portfolio of valuable products. Areas of focus include: (1) Carbon capture improvement through photosynthesis engineering; (2) Biotechnology and genetic toolbox development for broad species portfolio; (3) Conversion and fractionation of algal biomass to create high-value products and fuels; (4) Biological seaweed conversion to volatile fatty acids as fuel and product feedstocks; (5) Novel polyurethane production synthesis from fully renewable algae-based feedstocks; (6) Advanced analytical characterization of biomass feedstocks; and (7) Process techno-economic and life cycle modeling.

algae↗
DOE OSTI2023

Mission Analysis for Marine Renewable Energy to Provide Power for Marine Carbon Dioxide Removal

The mission of this project was to provide a preliminary feasibility assessment of powering different marine carbon dioxide removal (mCDR), marine carbon capture, and marine carbon sequestration strategies with marine energy. In this report, carbon capture refers to methods that can separate or capture carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from the air or ocean; carbon sequestration refers to methods that store CO 2 obtained by capture methods out of the atmosphere for long periods of time; and carbon dioxide removal (CDR) refers to methods that do both. The project found that mCDR powered by marine energy and offshore wind energy available in the United States could meet global CDR scales needed by 2040 and 2050 to limit warming to 1.5 degrees C by 2100. Note that this preliminary estimate assumes that it is possible to harvest all the marine and offshore wind resources available in the United States with existing technology options, and it does not account for the power needed for monitoring these methods, as these power needs are not yet well defined and require further research. Additionally, these CDR scales will still require emissions reductions.

16 TIDAL AND WAVE POWER↗
DOE OSTI2022

Skinny kelp (Saccharina angustissima) provides valuable genetics for the biomass improvement of farmed sugar kelp (Saccharina latissima)

Abstract Saccharina latissima (sugar kelp) is one of the most widely cultivated brown marine macroalgae species in the North Atlantic and the eastern North Pacific Oceans. To meet the expanding demands of the sugar kelp mariculture industry, selecting and breeding sugar kelp that is best suited to offshore farm environments is becoming necessary. To that end, a multi-year, multi-institutional breeding program was established by the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) Macroalgae Research Inspiring Novel Energy Resources (MARINER) program. Hybrid sporophytes were generated using 203 unique gametophyte cultures derived from wild-collected Saccharina spp . for two seasons of farm trials (2019–2020 and 2020–2021). The wild sporophytes were collected from 10 different locations within the Gulf of Maine (USA) region, including both sugar kelp ( Saccharina latissima ) and the skinny kelp species ( Saccharina angustissima ). We harvested 232 common farm plots during these two seasons with available data. We found that farmed kelp plots with skinny kelp as parents had an average increased yield over the mean (wet weight 2.48 ± 0.90 kg m −1 and dry weight 0.32 ± 0.10 kg m −1 ) in both growing seasons. We also found that blade length positively correlated with biomass in skinny kelp x sugar kelp crosses or pure sugar kelp crosses. The skinny x sugar progenies had significantly longer and narrower blades than the pure sugar kelp progenies in both seasons. Overall, these findings suggest that sugar x skinny kelp crosses provide improved yield compared to pure sugar kelp crosses.

59 BASIC BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES↗