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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 73 records · Page 4
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2026

Tank 14H Preliminary Cease Waste Removal Sample Analyses

Savannah River Mission Completion Waste Removal and Tank Closure requested that Savannah River National Laboratory perform characterization analyses of Tank 14H in support of closure activities, specifically preliminary cease waste removal. This report provides important characterization of the prepared filtrate and air-dried solids in the January 2026 Tank 14H sample, HTF-14-26-1,2,3,4,5,6, for I-129, Tc-99, Cs-137, and Sr-90. The results reported here were utilized by SRMC to declare preliminary cease waste removal for Tank 14H.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2020

Detecting Low-level Radiation Sources Using Border Monitoring Gamma Sensors

We consider a problem of detecting a low-level radiation source using a network of Gamma spectral sensors placed on the periphery of a monitored region. We propose a computationally light-weight, correlation-based method which is primarily intended for systems with limited computing capacity. Sensor measurements are combined at the fusion by first generating decisions at each time step and then taking their majority vote within a time widow. At each time step, decisions are generated using two strategies: (i) SUM method based on a threshold decision on a correlation statistic derived from measurements from all sensors, and (ii) OR method based on logical-OR of threshold decisions based on correlations statistics of individual sensor measurements. We derive analytical performance bounds for false alarm rates of SUM and OR methods, and show that their performance is enhanced by the temporal smoothing of majority vote within a time window. Using measurements from a test campaign, we generate a border monitoring scenario with twelve 2"x2" NaI Gamma sensors deployed on the periphery of 42m x 42m outdoor region. A Cs-137 source is moved in a straight-line across this region, starting several meters outside and finally moving away from it. We illustrate the performance of both correlation-based detection methods, and compare their performances with each other and with a particle filter method. Overall, under small false-alarm conditions, the OR fusion is found to produce better detection performance.

Sen, Satyabrata↗
DOE OSTI2020

Repurposing Hanford Waste Tank AP-106 for Interim Storage of Treated Low-Activity Waste - 20044

Hanford Double-Shell Tank AP-106 is being repurposed to serve as the lag storage tank holding feed for the Direct Feed Low-Activity Waste (DFLAW) process at the Waste Treatment and Immobilization Plant (WTP). The repurposing process is the sequence of tank additions and transfers that will remove the Cs 137 inventory from AP-106. The repurposing process steps are designed to remove Cs-137 more effectively and efficiently as compared to regular supernatant transfers. The process steps are estimated to take 2-months to complete. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2020

3D Printable Polymers for Radiological Applications

Additive manufacturing of polymers is a widely used and growing technology throughout the DOE complex. Composite filaments for Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) printers are commonly used to enhance material properties such as mechanical strength, operating temperature and chemical resistance. Radio luminescent properties were added to 3D filaments by impregnating clear poly(ethylene terephthalate)-glycol (PETG) with X-ray scintillator powder. X-ray scintillators have unique, narrow emission spectra which can be imaged with low light DSLR cameras, photomultiplier tubes, or spectrometers. Filament Production: 1. Pellets are loaded into the hopper. 2. Temperature and extrusion speed are set on extruder. 3. Extruder turned on and filament is pulled from nozzle along air path to cool. 4. Spooler drive speeds set. 5. Filament is inserted through Filameasure then guided along drive wheels and into traverse. 6. Parameters adjusted to obtain 1.75 mm diameter 7. Filament is inserted into spooler wheel. Traverse speed set and slip nut adjusted to make tight and even roll. From Raw Materials to Printed Part: Clear PETG pellets were dipped in ZnS:Cu scintillator powder to coat pellets. Coated and uncoated pellets were mixed together before inserting into hopper. Filament showed trace amounts of powder and luminesced under UV light. Powder distribution is random and not reproducible thus providing a unique identification marker potentially useful for national security applications. Multiple X-ray scintillators can be arranged in a panel to discriminate incident X-ray photon energies. Variable panel arrangement: pixelated, layered, solid from homogenous filament. Ratio of emission intensities. Response varies with incident photon energy. Spectrally separate scintillators. Scintillators: Yttrium Oxide Europium Doped - Red, Gadolinium Oxysulfide Terbium Doped - Green, Barium Magnesium Aluminate Europium Doped - Blue, Zinc Sulfide Copper Doped - Green. Powder concentrations will need to be increased in the filament for use in the energy discriminating panel. Homogeneity in the filament will be a challenge that can be solved by turning the pellets into a powder and mixing it with scintillator powder prior to extrusion. The panels will be tested using x-ray booths and button sources such as Am-241, Cs-137, and Co-60.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2020

The Use of Silver Chloride Injection in Remediation of Iodine-129 by In Situ Capture as Silver Iodide at the F-Area Seepage Basin - 20225

The Savannah River Site (SRS) produced tritium, plutonium, and special nuclear materials for national defense, medicine, and the space programs. As part of operations, the F-Area Seepage Basins operated until 1988 for the disposition of deionized acidic wastewater from the F Separations Facility. The wastewater contained dilute nitric acid and low concentrations of non-radioactive metals, and radionuclides, with the major isotopes being Cs-137, Sr-90, U-235, U-238, Pu-239, Tc-99, I-129, and tritium. The seepage basins were closed in 1988 and backfilled and capped by 1991. The groundwater emanating from beneath the closed and capped seepage basins is acidic and contains elevated levels of both chemical and radiological contaminants. Releases from the groundwater plumes sourced from the F-Area Seepage Basins have impacted the water quality of Fourmile Branch, which is a small tributary to the Savannah River, a regional water source. A large pump-and-treat system was constructed in 1997 and operated until 2003 in an attempt to capture the releases to Fourmile Branch. The system in F Area and a similar system in H Area were expensive (∼$1.3 M/month) to operate and produced large quantities of radioactive waste, with concentrations of I- 129 too high to be disposed of at the SRS. In 2004, SRS replaced pump-and-treat with a funnel and gate system that along with operation of a base injection system at the gates reduces the flux of contaminants to the wetlands adjacent to Fourmile Branch. The alkaline solution injected into the aquifer neutralizes the acidic plume and immobilizes many of the cationic constituents. However, base injection is not effective in managing the release of iodine-129, an anionic contaminant. To address iodine-129 SRS and the Savannah River National Laboratory developed an in situ technology that uses ultra-fine ground silver chloride (AgCl) as an injectable capture medium for the sequestration of iodine-129. The AgCl amendment has a very small particle size and is designed to be injected into the contaminated aquifer to capture iodine-129. Dissolved iodine-129 forms a stable and highly insoluble solid (silver iodide) upon contact with AgCl. Laboratory studies, a field scale pilot test (2009), and three deployments (2011, 2015 and 2019) of AgCl have been successfully performed at the F-Area Seepage Basins. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2020

A Study on Radionuclides Selection for DCGLs Development for Site Release of KRR Units 1 and 2 site in Korea - 20256

The selection of Derived Concentration Guideline Levels (DCGLs) in nuclear facilities decommissioning is important because they serve as criteria for site characterization and final status surveys. DCGLs should be derived for KAERI TRIGA Mark II and III research reactor site clearance and prior to the work, a radionuclides list for DCGLs consideration was created. Radionuclides selection for DCGLs was performed according to the procedure proposed by the US NRC based on the characterization survey related to the decommission site. By evaluating the dose contribution of each radionuclide using D and D computer code, radionuclides with a dose contribution fraction of 0.1% or more for the entire radionuclide were selected. As a result, the selected radionuclides were beta radionuclides H-3, C-14 and Sr-90 and gamma radionuclides Co-60, Cs-137, Eu-152 and Eu-154. The selected radionuclides can be presented for consultation with domestic regulatory agencies in the future and will be used as the technical base of DCGLs for the final status survey. (authors)

07 ISOTOPE AND RADIATION SOURCES↗
DOE OSTI2020

TCCR Operational Summary and Optimization for Tank 9 Processing - 20314

Savannah River Remediation (SRR) manages and operates the liquid waste facilities at Savannah River Site (SRS) for the Department of Energy (DOE). Stored liquid waste is a complex mixture of insoluble solids (sludge) and soluble salts in an alkaline solution. SRR has deployed the Tank Closure Cesium Removal (TCCR) system, a tank-side ion exchange process, to remove radioactive cesium from salt waste and enable onsite disposal of the resulting decontaminated salt solution as low-level waste at the Saltstone facilities. The TCCR system consists of two prefilters, four ion exchange (IX) columns, one resin trap, and a ventilation system. The IX process uses a form of inorganic crystalline silicotitanate (CST), which has a high affinity for cesium and other alkali metals, strontium, and actinides. This process is currently deployed utilizing salt feed from Tank 10, with future plans to dissolve solid salt in Tank 9 and transfer the salt solution to Tank 10 for processing through TCCR. The feed for TCCR must be created from salt-cake in Tank 10 through a dissolution process. Once enough salt has been dissolved, a qualification process is entered. This process characterizes the feed and ensures the cesium loading on the columns will not cause boiling of waste within the columns during or after processing. Once the batch has been qualified, salt waste is fed to the TCCR system through a transfer pump in the center of the tank. The waste is filtered through a set of two shielded, dead-end prefilters that prevent solids buildup in the columns. The filtered salt solution then travels to the shielded IX columns, which can be operated individually or in series, where the cesium is sorbed on the CST media. The decontaminated salt solution (DSS) then travels through a resin trap and out of the module to Tank 11. TCCR has successfully processed approximately 795,000 L of Tank 10H radioactive salt waste over two batches to date. There has not yet been a system induced shutdown. The prefilters performed as expected with only minor degradation in recovery of differential pressure after a backflush sequence. The time between backflushes decreased as each batch reached the end of processing. The hydraulics in the IXCs mostly performed as expected at all flow rates, except for one IXC that will be further investigated during Batch 3 processing. The TCCR system has shown some opportunities for more efficient processing during the length of the demonstration so far. For future processing of material from Tank 9H through Tank 10H and the TCCR unit, TCCR 1A will implement changes to the prefilters and the IXCs. The prefilters will have an increased surface area and a new filter media in an effort to increase time between filter swaps and improve backwashing cleaning capability. The IXCs will have a reduced diameter to allow for increased heat transfer out of the column and increased loading of Cs-137. Additionally, a new form of CST with an increased kinetic performance is being investigated for use during TCCR 1A operation. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2020

Qualification of Processing Batches for Tank Closure Cesium Removal Through In-Tank Batch Contact Testing - 20470

The Tank Closure Cesium Removal (TCCR) process at the Savannah River Site (SRS) is currently processing waste from Tank 10H, generating decontaminated salt solution that is sent to Tank 11H. Transfers out of Tank 11H are then disposed of on site as a grout wasteform in the SRS Saltstone Processing Facility. This is a full-scale demonstration of the use of Crystalline Silicotitanate (CST) for the decontamination of aqueous nuclear waste supernate. CST primarily removes cesium from the high sodium alkaline feed, but also adsorbs strontium, actinides, and some other trace metals. The TCCR unit is an at-tank set of four ion exchange columns, with two typically being operated in series during waste processing. Tank 10H is serving a dual function as both the salt dissolution tank as well as the feed tank for the TCCR system. Prior to operation of TCCR, Tank 10H must undergo dissolution campaigns, dissolving the salt cake to form an aqueous salt solution (supernate). After each dissolution campaign, the supernate created must be qualified prior to processing through the TCCR system. Qualification includes detailed characterization of the supernate as well as in-tank batch contact tests to determine the equilibrium loading of Cs-137 on the CST ion exchange media (IONSIV{sup TM} R9120-Ba). In support of the in-tank batch contact testing, Savannah River National Laboratory (SRNL) developed a CST sample holder, also referred to as a 'tea-bag', to hold a measured amount (∼0.1 grams) of pretreated CST between stainless steel screens. The tea-bag fits within a standard stainless steel sample vial that has been modified to allow the flow of supernate to the CST. This sample holder is then immersed in the waste tank allowing free contact between the CST beads and the surrounding liquid, at an effectively infinite liquid-to-solid phase ratio. A pair of tea-bags are deployed in the tank for a period of 10 days for each batch, after which the CST is recovered, digested, and analyzed to determine the loading of cesium isotopes on the CST. This result then supports the TCCR column thermal loading limits for processing as part of the TCCR safety basis. This paper will discuss the design and testing of the CST sample holder, as well as results from the first few batches of waste qualified and subsequently processed through the TCCR system. In addition, results from analyses of Tank 11H samples, showing decontamination of the product will be included. (authors)

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗
DOE OSTI2024

Characterization of Scintillating Crystal for High Energy Radiation Detection and Applications

Cesium Hafnium Chloride (Cs2Hfl6) is a promising metal halide scintillating detector due to its excellent characteristics such as non-hygroscopicity, high light yield without doping. Scintillators plays an important role in nuclear security applications as detectors at border monitoring stations. We grew and characterized CHC crystals to be fabricated for gamma detection. Photoluminescence was performed using the Duetta Fluorescence and Absorbance Spectrometer. The energy response to Cs-137 and Co-60 reference sources was recorded for a representative sodium iodide (NaI) scintillating detector.

Reeder, Angel↗
DOE OSTI2025

Characterization of Pinhole Collimators for High-Resolution Gamma Imaging of Irradiated Fuel

Post-irradiation examination (PIE) of nuclear fuels requires imaging tools capable of resolving isotopic and spatial features with high throughput. This project contributes to a proof-of-concept effort aimed at advancing gamma emission tomography (GET) by evaluating novel fine-aperture pinhole collimators. Two Rose’s metal collimators, 100 µm (20° acceptance angle) and 350 µm (30° acceptance angle), were prototyped and characterized for their effectiveness in transporting gamma rays through the pinhole aperture. To support data collection, a Python-based data acquisition system was developed to coordinate a rotation stage, linear stage, and CZT detector, reducing latency in high-rate gamma event logging to one second per acquisition. Queue-based file writing enabled seamless real-time data capture for count rates up to 35,000 counts per second (cps). List-mode parsing algorithms were implemented to differentiate single and simultaneous gamma interactions for future tomographic reconstruction. Detector response was evaluated in both spectroscopy and list mode acquisition methods across varying source distances to confirm absolute and collimator efficiencies. Preliminary efficiency figures suggest effective collimation of gamma-rays with energies below 700 keV, with ~4% residual intensity through the aperture for Cs-137. The impact of collimator geometry on image quality is currently being evaluated. This groundwork supports the ongoing development of a sub mm resolution cone-beam CT system for imaging fuel phantoms, an essential step toward improving GET efficiency and accelerating nuclear fuel qualification efforts.

46 - INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AN↗
DOE OSTI2026

Tank 11H Low Temperature Aluminum Dissolution and Inhalation Dose Potential Analyses at Savannah River Site – 26018

Currently, there is approximately 34 million gallons of high-level radioactive tank waste in the Tank Farm at the Savannah River Site (SRS). The ultimate goal of operations at the Tank Farm is to remove the high level waste (HLW) from the tanks followed by stabilization of the waste through vitrification of the HLW into glass or grouting the decontaminated waste into saltstone. After bulk removal of the HLW consisting of sludge, saltcake, and supernatant, further efforts are made to reduce the residual waste present in the tank in order to declare preliminary cease waste removal (PCWR) signifying completion of HLW removal. These reduction efforts can include tank washing to remove soluble salts and radioisotopes and dissolution of solids including aluminum. Aluminum in the form of gibbsite and boehmite is relatively insoluble in water. Through addition of aqueous sodium hydroxide, the aluminum can be dissolved at mild temperatures. In order for the waste tank to meet closure mode requirements of the Concentration, Storage, and Transfer Facilities (CSTF), which includes the Tank Farm, Documented Safety Analysis (DSA), a component of the safety basis, the inhalation dose potential (IDP) and the radiolytic hydrogen generation rate of the stored waste must be demonstrated to be lower than their respective designated limits. These parameters are calculated from measured radiochemical analyses of isotopes that emit a high amount of radioactivity including Cs-137, Sr-90, Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241, Am-241, and Cm-244. Following the low temperature aluminum dissolution (LTAD) process, Tank 11H slurry samples were pulled from the tank and sent to Savannah River National Laboratory (SRNL) to measure the extent of aluminum dissolution, hydroxide concentration, densities of slurry and supernatant, weight percent solids analyses, and radionuclide activities. The analyses of the composite sample found that approximately 90% of the total aluminum in the slurry was dissolved, indicating successful reduction of the insoluble aluminum in the waste tank. Additionally, the weight percent insoluble solids (slurry basis) measurement of the composite sample was found to be approximately 1%, demonstrating that minimal solids still remain in the tank. Finally, the radiochemical analyses of the composite sample determined that the waste contents of the tank met the IDP and radiolytic hydrogen generation rate requirements of the CSTF DSA. These measurements have shown that the LTAD process in Tank 11H was successful in waste reduction efforts and a positive step towards declaring PCWR and tank closure at SRS.

Dekarske, John [Savannah River National Laboratory↗
DOE OSTI2023

Empirical evidence that mean soil contaminant concentration is not a conservative indicator of external exposure to wildlife

Adequate information on external exposure is often a limiting factor in ecological risk assessments because of a lack of exposure data for free-ranging animals as they interact with a heterogeneous distribution of contaminants. Instead, most wildlife exposure data are estimated from model simulations. However, empirical exposure data are rarely available to verify model results, or to test fundamental assumptions inherent in exposure assessments. We used novel, GPS-coupled radiation dosimeters on reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) to quantify their external exposure for five months in a Chernobyl fallout affected mountainous area of Norway. The exposure data were then used to test a fundamental assumption in screening-level risk assessments: Mean soil contaminant concentrations can be used to conservatively estimate chronic external exposures to representative animals. External exposure and GPS coordinates were obtained hourly and compared to model simulations of exposure based on airborne surveys of 137 Cs soil contamination. Our objectives were to determine 1) if modelled dose estimates based on mean 137 Cs soil concentrations were conservative, and 2) if modelled dose estimates could be improved by adjusting for spatial–temporal heterogeneity of contaminants using 137 Cs concentrations within reindeers’ GPS-defined home ranges and core areas. We found that external exposure modelled from mean soil contaminant concentrations underestimated exposure by 70% compared to empirical measurements from GPS-dosimeter collars worn on individual animals. Using area-weighted mean contaminant levels within the animals’ home range improved the model estimates, but still underestimated the field dosimeter data by 53%. The best estimate of external exposure was obtained when high-use areas within their home range, along with spatial heterogeneity of the contaminant, was accounted for by using area-weighted mean soil contaminant levels within GPS-derived core areas. Accounting for temporal use of core areas within animals’ home range provided a 24% improvement. Here, a comparison of our analyses to similar work performed on Chernobyl wolves found the two studies concur that risk assessors should be cautious in relying on the paradigm of using averaged soil contaminant levels to provide conservative estimates of external exposure to representative individuals. Results of modelled external exposure based on mean soil contaminant concentrations could misguide assessors and cause inappropriate management decisions.

63 RADIATION, THERMAL, AND OTHER ENVIRON. POLLUTAN↗
DOE OSTI2025

Use of Constrained Gamma Emission Computed Tomography to Evaluate Fission Product Distributions in High-Temperature Materials from a TRISO Fuel Irradiation

An image reconstruction technique was developed to overcome problems with earlier methods of gamma emission computed tomography of graphite rings surrounding the AGR-3/4 TRISO fission product transport experiment. The profiles obtained from the tomography are compared with sampling done via radially resolved destructive sampling techniques. Generally, there is good agreement between profiles measured via destructive sampling of the rings and the tomographic profiles, though at low signal strengths, the tomographic profiles appear elevated.

11 - NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE AND FUEL MATERIALS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Recommendations for harmonized reporting of radiation Dosimetry by adoption of Compatibility in Irradiation Research Protocols Expert Roundtable (CIRPER)

Here, in radiobiology, radiation physics, and related areas, there is growing interest in transitioning from cesium-based irradiators to X-ray technologies. Therefore, it makes it imperative for reproducibility purposes, for researchers to provide specifications regarding device parameters, machine calibration details, and experimental setup when innovative X-ray technology is being employed. Several groups have already identified a glaring lack in completeness of critical information on experimental setups, equipment, and physical parameters in published radiation biology studies. The Alternative Technologies Meta Study Report by Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) examined 456 manuscripts published between 2017-2021. Only 64 of the reviewed studies (14.0%) consistently reported methods that could allow for replication of their studies. However, 85% provided information on the manufacturer, the irradiator model and the absorbed radiation dose. Approximately 66% provided information on the energy spectra and the dose rate, but only one third disclosed the filter used. Less than 15% of the reviewed studies reported information on calibration and field geometry, specifically field size and distance from source, which are critical parameters in determining the absorbed radiation dose.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Comparison and calibration of dose delivered by 137 Cs and x-ray irradiators in mice

Objective. The Office of Radiological Security, U.S. Department of Energy's National Nuclear Security Administration, is implementing a radiological risk reduction program which seeks to minimize or eliminate the use of high activity radiological sources, including 137 Cs, by replacing them with non-radioisotopic technologies, such as x-ray irradiators. The main goal of this paper is to evaluate the equivalence of the dose delivered by gamma- and x-ray irradiators in mice using experimental measurements and Monte Carlo simulations. We also propose a novel biophantom as an in situ dose calibration method. Approach. We irradiated mouse carcasses and 3D-printed mouse biophantoms in a 137 Cs irradiator (Mark I-68) and an x-ray irradiator (X-Rad320) at three voltages (160 kVp, 225 kVp and 320 kVp) and measured the delivered radiation dose. A Geant4-based Monte Carlo model was developed and validated to provide a comprehensive picture of gamma- and x-ray irradiation in mice. Main Results. Our Monte Carlo model predicts a uniform dose delivered in soft-tissue for all the explored irradiation programs and in agreement with the absolute dose measurements. Our Monte Carlo model shows an energy-dependent difference between dose in bone and in soft tissue that decreases as photon energy increases. Dose rate depends on irradiator and photon energy. We observed a deviation of the measured dose from the target value of up to –9% for the Mark I-68, and up to 35% for the X-Rad320. The dose measured in the 3D-printed phantoms are equivalent to that in the carcasses within 6% uncertainty. Significance. Our results suggest that 320 kVp irradiation is a good candidate to substitute 137 Cs irradiation barring a few caveats. There is a significant difference between measured and targeted doses for x-ray irradiation that suggests a strong need for in situ calibration, which can be achieved with 3D-printed mouse biophantoms. A dose correction is necessary for bone doses, which can be provided by a Monte Carlo calculation. Lastly, the biological implications of the differences in dose rates and dose per photon for the different irradiation methods should be carefully assessed for each small-animal irradiation experiment.

62 RADIOLOGY AND NUCLEAR MEDICINE↗
DOE OSTI2022

Alternative Technologies Adopters Outreach Survey Report

Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), in collaboration with Ioanna Iliopulos and Christopher Boyd (independent contractors), conducted quantitative and qualitative surveys to document views and opinions of scientists and researchers with firsthand experience operating x-ray devices for a wide range of research applications. The goal of the study was to fill critical information gaps and identify misconceptions widely held among the research community regarding the transition from Cesium-137 irradiators to x-ray devices. The survey instrument focused on three distinct yet interrelated areas that impact users' experience: operational impacts, including infrastructure needs, workflow, personnel management, and training, and regulatory compliance; research design and investigation impacts, including calibration, dosimetry, continuity of previous studies, development of new research agendas, and the outcomes for both; and funding impacts, specifically how grant sources and opportunities have responded to the transition.

46 INSTRUMENTATION RELATED TO NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND ↗
DOE OSTI1969

Application of Nuclear Technology to Art Identification Problems: First Annual Report

Throughout the centuries, as man has become increasingly affluent, his interest in antiquities and objects of art, and the price he has been willing to pay for them, has increased. Inevitably, one result has been to attract the unscrupulous to the production and sale of counterfeit paintings, sculptures, and other works of art. The skill of forgers varies but often is highly sophisticated. However, dealers, museum curators, and other experts have also become more skillful in the detection of forgeries. Scientific tools of increasing sensitivity and sophistication have gradually been applied to the examination of the materials of art and archaeology. Such tools frequently support and render more reliable the judgment of the experts. The quality of forgeries may improve further as their makers become acquainted with the new methods of detection and in turn learn to circumvent or confound the methods. Therefore, the development of still more advanced methods of examination has great utility in the art world. This is particularly true if the ultimate effect is to make circumvention of the methods of examination so costly that the economic incentives for producing forgeries may be substantially reduced, if not eliminated.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗