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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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228 records · Page 4
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
NASA NTRS2026

Experimental Demonstration of a Supersonic Spike Ejector

Spike diffusers are presented as a means to improve supersonic ejector efficiency via reduction in shock losses. Design, fabrication, and testing of an articulated prototype is described. Experimental results are compared to empirical performance curves representing the loci of optimal one- and two-stage conventional ejectors driven by dry air and discharging to atmosphere. Operated at a compression ratio of ~10 with all inputs equal, the spike ejector is shown to have achieved up to 2.19X and 1.83X the secondary mass throughput of the one- and two-stage references, respectively. This suggests the potential of spike diffusers to reduce ejector operating costs by ~50%.

wind tunnel↗
NASA NTRS2026

Raising TRL of Your Lunar Payload

Preparing payloads for the lunar surface requires rigorous testing that accurately captures the extreme environmental and operational conditions. This presentation provides an overview of the lunar relevant test capabilities at NASA JSC’s Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science (ARES) laboratories as well as the Energy System Test Area (ESTA) Lunar Development and Test Facility. These facilities allow teams to assess hardware performance in dusty vacuum environments, characterize interactions with high fidelity lunar regolith simulants, evaluate mechanical and thermal durability, and understand the effects of micrometeoroid and orbital debris impacts—critical factors for certifying payloads that will operate on the lunar surface or in orbit. While Lunar power challenges such as variable illumination, extreme temperatures, and dust driven degradation will be briefly summarized, the focus of this talk is on how JSC’s test infrastructure enables developers to validate designs, reduce mission risk, and ensure compatibility with CLPS and Artemis objectives. NASA JSC’s expertise and experience help industry, academic, and government teams prepare robust hardware ready for successful delivery and operation on the surface of the Moon.

Lunar Regolith Simulant↗
NASA NTRS2026

Raising TRL of Your Lunar Payload

Preparing payloads for the lunar surface requires rigorous testing that accurately captures the extreme environmental and operational conditions. This presentation provides an overview of the lunar relevant test capabilities at NASA JSC’s Astromaterials Research and Exploration Science (ARES) laboratories as well as the Energy System Test Area (ESTA) Lunar Development and Test Facility. These facilities allow teams to assess hardware performance in dusty vacuum environments, characterize interactions with high fidelity lunar regolith simulants, evaluate mechanical and thermal durability, and understand the effects of micrometeoroid and orbital debris impacts—critical factors for certifying payloads that will operate on the lunar surface or in orbit. While Lunar power challenges such as variable illumination, extreme temperatures, and dust driven degradation will be briefly summarized, the focus of this talk is on how JSC’s test infrastructure enables developers to validate designs, reduce mission risk, and ensure compatibility with CLPS and Artemis objectives. NASA JSC’s expertise and experience help industry, academic, and government teams prepare robust hardware ready for successful delivery and operation on the surface of the Moon.

Laboratories↗
NASA NTRS2026

Space Suit Material Compatibility with Space Vehicle Coolant PMS-1.5R

During a survey of 82P on February 11, 2023, a shiny substance was detected on the Progress vehicle. The suspected material was PMS-1.5R, a low volatility silicone oil coolant used in the vehicle. Crew exposure to the coolant was a concern as the low volatility would increase residence time, the time a material will stay on a surface after exposure to vacuum. A review of space suit materials revealed several materials with compatibility concerns that could impact Extravehicular Activity (EVA) operations and safety. To understand the risk, space suit materials were exposed to a simulant and tested. This testing provided the basis for rationale generated to continue with EVA operations for US EVA 86 on April 2, 2023. This testing also served as the basis to assess impacts to ISS EMU hardware due to potential contamination brought inside ISS on Russian space suits during RS EVA 61 on October 25, 2023, following an ISS Russian Multipurpose Lab Module (MLM) radiator leak of the same fluid on October 9, 2023. This paper will discuss the testing performed and analyze test results impacts to EVA operations. Additional work was conducted to determine coolant evaporation rates in space vacuum and demonstrate that no significant unreacted coolant from the MLM leak would remain on ISS surfaces long enough to contaminate the EMU or affect the ISS ECLSS water separator.

Space Suit Materials↗
DOE OSTI2026

Kinetic control of phase evolution and defect-mediated recombination in AACVD-grown copper antimony sulphide thin films

Copper antimony sulphide (CAS) is a multinary chalcogenide semiconductor in which small deviations from stoichiometry can drive phase competition and strong defect-mediated modulation of optoelectronic properties. However, the systematic roles of copper precursor fraction and deposition time in governing phase evolution, off-stoichiometry, and recombination dynamics in aerosol-assisted chemical vapour deposition (AACVD)-grown undoped CAS thin films remain insufficiently understood. In this work, undoped CAS thin films were deposited by AACVD using Cu(dedtc)2 and Sb(dedtc)3 single-source precursors at 550 °C and a carrier gas flow rate of 150 sccm, while the Cu(dedtc)2 mole fraction (x = 0.15 – 0.55) and deposition time (1 – 2 hours) were systematically varied to probe how growth kinetics influence phase composition, microstructure, and defect-mediated optical properties without post-deposition annealing or extrinsic doping. Increasing copper precursor content drives phase evolution toward tetrahedrite-dominant CAS films at intermediate Cu(dedtc)2 mole fractions, with the film deposited at x = 0.35 exhibiting the strongest tetrahedrite character within the parameter space examined. The films are also copper-rich, antimony-poor, and sulphur-deficient, consistent with off-stoichiometric growth and intrinsic defect formation, plausibly including copper interstitials, Cu-on-Sb antisites, and sulphur vacancies. These growth-dependent compositional deviations are accompanied by tunable indirect optical bandgaps of approximately 1.60 – 2.18 eV and weak visible photoluminescence governed by defect-mediated recombination. Time-resolved photoluminescence reveals bi-exponential decay behaviour with lifetimes of approximately 0.1 – 3.6 ns, with emission dominated by slower donor–acceptor pair recombination and a smaller contribution from faster trap-assisted pathways. Collectively, these results establish an explicit kinetic process–structure–defect–property relationship for AACVD-grown CAS thin films and provide a growth–structure–property framework relevant to future optimization of CAS-based optoelectronic and energy materials.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
NASA NTRS1994

New Trends in Coatings Developments for Turbine Blades: Materials Processing and Repair

Turbine engines for aeronautic applications now have to face strenuous requirements concerning not only operating performances but also reliability and repairability. This evolution of the specifications induces important consequences regarding the choice and the design of turbine blade protective coatings. This paper presents several key features concerning the deposition techniques and the real-life behavior of such coatings: (1) complex aluminides well suited to the protection against high temperature oxidation and hot corrosion of directionally solidified nickel-base superalloy turbine blades; (2) ceramic coatings used as thermal barriers - they have to exhibit both high resistance to thermomechanical fatigue and adequate smoothness; (3) processing techniques for thermal barriers, including plasma spraying, electron beam physical vapor deposition and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition; and (4) blades and coatings repair techniques.

S Alpérine↗
DOE OSTI2026

Monolayer Films of Binary Metal Oxide Nanoparticles for Carbon Nanotube Synthesis

Binary metal oxide nanoparticles (biMO-NPs) combining transition and main-group metals with well-organized atomic architectures have unique potential as robust and economical heterogeneous catalysts. Herein, metal oxide nanoparticles (CoAlxOy) using cobalt and aluminum were synthesized, and their structure, morphology, and chemical composition were investigated using various characterization techniques. The biMO-NPs, which had a Gaussian-type size distribution (∼6 nm), were assembled on plain silicon substrates modified chemically with linker molecules bearing suitable end groups. Surface analysis revealed an ordered, uniform, close-packed arrangement of biMO-NPs forming a monolayer architecture with nanoscale thickness (∼12 nm), high surface uniformity, and negligible defects. The nanoparticle monolayer film (NP-MF) was employed as a catalyst to grow carbon nanotube (CNT) forests via the thermal chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method, similar to those grown from catalyst thin films deposited by physical vapor deposition. Structural characterization confirmed the growth of a dense, uniform, high-quality vertically aligned carbon nanotube (VA-CNT) forest with a length of ∼125 µm, which is comparable to the VA-CNTs grown from expensive thin films. Thus, CNT growth was successfully catalyzed by the biMO-NPs, highlighting a simple and inexpensive alternative for catalyst deposition. In this innovative wet-chemistry approach, the catalyst and catalyst support are combined within a single nanoparticle before NP-MF assembly. Interestingly, this approach provides a scalable and cost-effective pathway for CNT growth, eliminating the need for expensive thin deposition techniques.

Regmi, Bishow [University of Cincinnati]↗
DOE OSTI2026

15.3% AM1.5G Efficiency GaAs Solar Cells Fabricated via an Epitaxy-Free Process

Here, we report simple and potentially low-cost techniques for creating high-quality n-type gallium arsenide (GaAs) and GaAs p/n junctions and fabricate GaAs p/n junction solar cells. Detailed-balance modeling suggests that 20% AM1.5G efficiency p/n homojunction devices may be possible if the surface doping concentration can be limited to values less than ∼ 5 × 10 19 cm −3 . Our process exploits an open-tube, vapor-phase, deposition-free, zinc diffusion technique for forming p-type layers in melt-grown n-GaAs substrates that results in sheet resistances less than 1 kΩ/$\square$. In addition, we have improved the minority carrier diffusion lengths of melt-grown GaAs from less than one micron to over five microns using an open-tube, vacuum-free, annealing process which reduces the density of EL2 midgap defects. Finally, we have combined these advances to fabricate epitaxy-free, GaAs solar cells with a validated AM1.5G efficiency of 15.3%.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2026

Semi-Transparent Perovskite Solar Cells in a Stacked Tandem Module: Cooperative Research and Development Final Report, CRADA Number CRD-19-00810

This project seeks to develop device design, materials composition, and processing tools and parameters to fabricate semi-transparent perovskite solar cells and modules for application in stand-alone products or added to other solar cells in a mechanically stacked tandem configuration. This technology presents significant advanced manufacturing challenges and opportunities in getting to scale, including development of perovskite inks, scalable perovskite and heterojunction deposition and annealing processes, heterojunction composition, transparent electrode composition and deposition process, anti-reflection layer composition and deposition process, and cell to module integration processes. Modification 5: The proposed project seeks to develop device design, materials composition, and processing tools and parameters to fabricate semi-transparent perovskite solar cells and modules for application in stand-alone products or added to other solar cells in a mechanically-stacked tandem configuration. This technology presents significant advanced manufacturing challenges and opportunities in getting to scale, including development of perovskite inks, scalable perovskite and heterojunction deposition and annealing processes, heterojunction composition, transparent electrode composition and deposition process, passivation layers including in module scribes, anti-reflection layer composition and deposition process, and cell to module integration processes. Advanced metrology and characterization will be performed on perovskite films, cells and module. Furthermore, we will examine module or materials recycling for circular economy considerations. Modifcation 6: Gigahertz frequency microwave pump-probe spectroscopies are highly sensitive to thin film semiconductor photoconductivity of individual and stacks of layers that comprise perovskite solar cells. As such, these techniques will be used to qualify reproducibility and quality correlations during the manufacturing process. Modification 7: Mechanical adhesion of top contacts within perovskite modules significantly impacts the durability of the module when exposed to accelerated degradation testing. The adhesion between the perovskite/transport layer interface and the transport layer/top contact interface are both very sensitive small changes in processing. ALD processing conditions of the transport layer will be tuned to optimize the mechanical adhesion within the perovskite module stack.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
NASA NTRS2026

Outgassing Characterization of Common Trash Items for Disposal By Nanoracks Airlock on the International Space Station

The arrival of the Nanoracks Airlock to the International Space Station (ISS) has provided the ISS program the capability to dispose of common trash items. The concept of operations involved the crew bagging up those items into a trash bag and then utilizing the robotic arm and the airlock to jettison the trash bag. Because of the unknown thermal vacuum stability of some of the items, a molecular contamination concern was raised by the ISS program as the trash is exposed to vacuum upon the evacuation of air from the airlock and the robotic arm moving the airlock to its jettison location. In order to characterize the representative outgassing rates for ISS trash, thermal vacuum testing was performed at White Sands Test Facility. Trash was sorted into a “lower” outgassing bag and a “mixed” bag. The “mixed” trash bag contained more items that were suspected to be not vacuum stable. Load cells were chosen as the primary means for measuring mass loss. A sharp decay in the outgassing rate was observed in the first 30 minutes followed by a slower decay. As expected, the “mixed” bag lost more mass. While Quartz Crystal Microbalances (QCMs) are often utilized to measure long term outgassing rates and the sticking coefficients of contaminants at different operating temperatures for vacuum stable materials, these measurements proved difficult due to the amount and the inclusion of materials with suspect thermal vacuum stability. Because of high rates of material outgassing, the facility was unable to maintain the CQCM temperature setpoint of 80 K QCMs.. The QCMs operating at the warmer temperatures also saturated on occasion due to high levels of condensed matter. Though testing was able to confirm high risk of outgassing contamination for the program, true sticking coefficients could not be determined, available measurements are provided herein.

Alvin Y Huang↗
NASA NTRS2026

Model Correlation and Thermal Analysis of xEMU Boot at Lunar South Pole Temperatures

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Artemis program plans to send astronauts to the lunar south pole, a region of the moon that is colder than previous lunar missions and low earth orbit operations. The spacesuit boots that will be used on these missions will be directly impacted by these extremely cold temperatures (down to ~50 K). To assess the performance of the Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit (xEMU) lunar boot in these extreme temperatures, the boot was tested at the Jet Propulsion Lab (JPL) in the Cryogenic Ice Transfer, Acquisition Development, and Excavation Laboratory (CITADEL) thermal vacuum (TVAC) chamber. This data was used to correlate thermal models to predict operational performance of the boots on the lunar south pole. This paper documents the data analysis, thermal boot model correlation, and operational predictions conducted using data from the xEMU TVAC test. Data from the test series was used to determine expected thermal conductances within the boot and between the boot and environment. These conductances were used to correlate a Thermal Desktop model of the xEMU boot across 10 different test points which varied external temperature, internal boot ventilation flowrate, and contact pressure. The correlated model was then used to predict operational performance in the lunar south pole. While the predictions indicate promising evidence for performance of the boots at the 100K test point, there is still substantial uncertainty in performance, particularly at the 48K test point. The results of this test series and model correlation stress the importance of improved testing for characterizing the expected thermal resistance between the outside of the boot and the lunar surface.

xEMU↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Model Correlation and Thermal Analysis of xEMU Boot at Lunar South Pole Temperatures

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Artemis program plans to send astronauts to the lunar south pole, a region of the moon that is colder than previous lunar missions and low earth orbit operations. The spacesuit boots that will be used on these missions will be directly impacted by these extremely cold temperatures (down to ~50 K). To assess the performance of the Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit (xEMU) lunar boot in these extreme temperatures, the boot was tested at the Jet Propulsion Lab (JPL) in the Cryogenic Ice Transfer, Acquisition Development, and Excavation Laboratory (CITADEL) thermal vacuum (TVAC) chamber. This data was used to correlate thermal models to predict operational performance of the boots on the lunar south pole. This paper documents the data analysis, thermal boot model correlation, and operational predictions conducted using data from the xEMU TVAC test. Data from the test series was used to determine expected thermal conductances within the boot and between the boot and environment. These conductances were used to correlate a Thermal Desktop model of the xEMU boot across 10 different test points which varied external temperature, internal boot ventilation flowrate, and contact pressure. The correlated model was then used to predict operational performance in the lunar south pole. While the predictions indicate promising evidence for performance of the boots at the 100K test point, there is still substantial uncertainty in performance, particularly at the 48K test point. The results of this test series and model correlation stress the importance of improved testing for characterizing the expected thermal resistance between the outside of the boot and the lunar surface.

thermal analysis↗
NASA NTRS2026

Predicting Operational Performance of xEMU Boot at Lunar South Pole Temperatures using Thermal Desktop ®

The spacesuit boots that will be used on Artemis lunar south pole surface missions will be exposed to extremely cold temperatures (down to ~50 K). To assess the performance of the government’s Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit (xEMU) lunar boot in these permanently shadowed regions, testing was performed at the Jet Propulsion Lab (JPL) in the Cryogenic Ice Transfer, Acquisition Development, and Excavation Laboratory (CITADEL) thermal vacuum (TVAC) chamber. This paper documents the data analysis, thermal boot model correlation, and operational predictions conducted using data from the xEMU CITADEL TVAC test. Expected thermal conductances within the boot and between the boot and environment were calculated from test data, which was then used as an initial guess for conductances within a Thermal Desktop (TD) model. Correlation of the TD model using the internal SOLVER feature was performed across 10 different test points which varied external temperature, internal boot ventilation flowrate, and contact pressure. Operational performance at the lunar south pole was then predicted using results from the correlated model. While the predictions provide evidence for acceptable performance of the boots at the 100K environment test point, there is still substantial uncertainty in performance, especially at the 48K test point. This uncertainty is due in part to testing limitations such as contacting the foot to a hard metal plate rather than granular regolith, and model limitations such as the lack of a realistic foot model. These limitations and their impacts are addressed in detail in this paper. The results of this test series and model correlation underscore the importance of additional improved testing and modeling for characterizing the expected thermal resistance between the outside of the boot and the lunar surface.

Spacesuit↗
DOE OSTI2026

Emissivity measurements of CuCrZr alloy

The Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB) heavy-ion accelerator, in user operation since 2022, produces rare isotope beams via interactions of high-intensity stable ion beams with a graphite production target. Approximately 20–40% of the primary beam power is deposited in the target, while the remaining 60–80% is absorbed by the beam dump. The minichannel beam dump (MCBD), currently operated at 20 kW and designed for operation up to 50 kW, uses CuCrZr alloy absorber plates. Thermal validation and thermal cycling tests of the MCBD were conducted at the Applied Research Laboratory (ARL) at Pennsylvania State University. Temperature measurements were obtained from an infrared (IR) camera. Since accurate temperature determination requires reliable emissivity values, the emissivity of CuCrZr was measured using the IR camera validated against thermocouple reference temperatures up to approximately 650 °C. The measurements were conducted under a vacuum level of approximately 10 -5 torr to minimize emissivity variations due to surface oxidation. The emissivity of CuCrZr was determined to be 0.057 ± 0.009 using a constant fit to the measured data over the surface temperature range from 100–650 °C.

Accelerator Subsystems and Technologies↗
DOE OSTI2025

Thick graded interfaces increase wear resistance in Ti/TiN nanolayered thin films

Multilayered composites with nanoscale layer thickness incorporating titanium and titanium nitride (Ti/TiN) are used as a model system to study the effects of heterophase interface structure on elastic and plastic deformation, as well as wear behavior. Here, in this work, hardness, modulus, and wear rate under dry reciprocating sliding contact are quantified as a function of Ti-TiN heterophase interfacial nitrogen gradient thickness for Ti/TiN multilayers with 10–80 nm layer thickness. Hardness and modulus are found to be inversely proportional to layer thickness and independent of interface gradient for most specimens. Wear rate is found to be inversely proportional to interface gradient thickness at constant layer thickness, demonstrating that control of nanoscale interface structure is a valid approach to enhancing wear behavior. The materials studied in this work wear comparably or slower than other Ti- and TiN-based composites in the literature, providing a promising avenue for engineering wear-resistant materials for use in industrially relevant applications.

Graded interfaces↗
DOE OSTI2023

Delineating the Impact of Transition‐Metal Crossover on Solid‐Electrolyte Interphase Formation with Ion Mass Spectrometry

Abstract Lithium‐metal batteries (LMB) employing cobalt‐free layered‐oxide cathodes are a sustainable path forward to achieving high energy densities, but these cathodes exhibit substantial transition‐metal dissolution during high‐voltage cycling. While transition‐metal crossover is recognized to disrupt solid‐electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation on graphite anodes, experimental evidence is necessary to demonstrate this for lithium‐metal anodes. In this work, advanced high‐resolution 3D chemical analysis is conducted with time‐of‐flight secondary‐ion mass spectrometry (TOF‐SIMS) to establish spatial correlations between the transition metals and electrolyte decomposition products found on cycled lithium‐metal anodes. Insights into the localization of various chemistries linked to crucial processes that define LMB performance, such as lithium deposition, SEI growth, and transition‐metal deposition are deduced from a precise elemental and spatial analysis of the SEI. Heterogenous transition‐metal deposition is found to perpetuate both heterogeneous SEI growth and lithium deposition on lithium‐metal anodes. These correlations are confirmed across various lithium‐metal anodes that are cycled with different cobalt‐free cathodes and electrolytes. An advanced electrolyte that is stable to higher voltages is shown to minimize transition‐metal crossover and its effects on lithium‐metal anodes. Overall, these results highlight the importance of maintaining uniform SEI coverage on lithium‐metal anodes, which is disrupted by transition‐metal crossover during operation at high voltages.

Chemistry↗
NASA NTRS2026

Scientific Highlights and Status of the Mars Science Laboratory Mission, Years 9 through 12

We present the scientific highlights and status from years 9-12 of NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory mission, with its Curiosity rover. A thermochemolysis-based sample analysis revealed a variety of organic molecules preserved in clay mineral-rich lake/lake margin deposits of the Glen Torridon region. The stratigraphically higher clay-sulfate mineral transition on Aeolis Mons was found to be associated with a lithological change from lacustrine to dry aeolian depositional environments. Water intermittently returned to the surface after the increase in aridity, including during the deposition of wave ripple strata which indicate a climate capable of sustaining an ice-free lake in the early Hesperian. The overlying Mg sulfate-bearing unit has both poly- and monohydrated Mg sulfates and is also enriched in iron carbonate of a purity consistent with chemical sedimentation and therefore atmospheric sequestration. A channel-incised canyon within Gediz Vallis and distal alluvial deposits recorded numerous fluvial and debris flow events after the deposition, lithification, and erosion of the clay- and sulfate-bearing units. Bright clasts found in Gediz Vallis canyon are composed of native sulfur. The investigation of the modern atmosphere and environment focused on the influence of the crater and mountain topography and captured high-altitude noctilucent and iridescent clouds. Radiation monitoring now spans an 11-year solar cycle. Rover systems and science instruments remain capable of addressing mission scientific objectives. All ten scientific instruments continue to return high-value data despite degradation of the Chemistry and Camera instrument’s high-voltage system, loss of multispectral imaging capability, and loss of active neutron spectroscopy. The mission has mitigated the loss of redundant brakes on two arm joints, additional wheel wear, and highly reduced capability of the redundant flight computer. Efficiency improvements in rover energy utilization and operations staffing have allowed the mission team to maintain a high level of productivity despite declining rover power generation and funding.

Mars↗
DOE OSTI2026

Understanding Photovoltage Deficits in Electrochemically Grown Tin Sulfide (SnS) Thin-Film Photovoltaic Devices

Tin­(II) sulfide (SnS) is an earth-abundant semiconductor with a direct optical bandgap of ca. 1.1 eV, which makes it a promising absorber material for thin-film photovoltaic (PV) devices. However, existing devices have significant photovoltage deficits, which may be related to the anisotropic structure of the layered Herzenbergite SnS crystal structure. Here, we explore electrochemical deposition as a near room temperature path to oriented SnS crystal films on Mo and FTO substrates and employ vibrating Kelvin probe surface photovoltage (SPV) spectroscopy and J–V measurements to identify conversion losses in them. According to grazing-incidence X-ray diffraction and SEM, the SnS films consist of crystalline microplates with preferred orientation in the [111] and [001] directions. The bare SnS films produce only small and irreversible surface photovoltage signals, due charge trapping and recombination at the SnS surfaces, but addition of a CdS buffer layer lowers the charge recombination rate by 2 orders of magnitude and increases both the photovoltage and its reversibility due to the formation of a p-SnS/n-CdS junction. According to SPV, the FTO/SnS back interface (but not the Mo/SnS interface) forms a detrimental p–n junction that hinders hole transfer. Additional shunting through the relatively open microcrystal SnS layers and a lower conductivity of the FTO substrate explain the low power conversion efficiencies of the final devices (0.18 and 0.10% for the Mo and FTO substrates). Altogether, this work establishes a low-temperature path for the fabrication of crystalline SnS film-based solar cells and identifies the bottlenecks that limit high photoconversion efficiency.

deposition↗