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All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2020

Research Requirements to Move the Bar forward Using Aqueous Formate Salts as H 2 Carriers for Energy Storage Applications

In this perspective on hydrogen carriers, we focus on the needs for the development of robust active catalysts for the release of H 2 from aqueous formate solutions, which are non-flammable, non-toxic, thermally stable, and readily available at large scales at reasonable cost. Formate salts can be stockpiled in the solid state or dissolved in water for long term storage and transport using existing infrastructure. Furthermore, formate salts are readily regenerated at moderate pressures using the same catalyst as for the H 2 release. There have been several studies focused on increasing the activity of catalysts to release H 2 at moderate temperatures, i.e., < 80 °C, below the operating temperature of a proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell. One significant challenge to enable the use of aqueous formate salts as hydrogen carriers is the deactivation of the catalyst under operating conditions. In this work we provide a review of the most efficient heterogeneous catalysts that have been described in the literature, their proposed modes of deactivation, and the strategies reported to reactivate them. We discuss potential pathways that may lead to deactivation and strategies to mitigate it in a variety of H 2 carrier applications. We also provide an example of a potential use case employing formate salts solutions using a fixed bed reactor for seasonal storage of energy for a microgrid application.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Demonstration of Electrolyzer Operation at a Nuclear Plant to Allow for Dynamic Participation in an Organized Electricity Market and In-House Hydrogen Supply

This document details the execution of Cooperative Agreement DE-EE0008849, “demonstration of electrolyzer operation at a nuclear plant to allow for dynamic participation in an organized electricity market and in-house hydrogen supply” during the performance period of 10/1/2019 – 9/30/2024. The project was funded by the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE). Constellation Energy Generation, LLC (formerly Exelon Generation Company, LLC) is the prime recipient of the award. Other members of the project team are INL, NREL, ANL and Nel Hydrogen. The main project objective was to demonstrate an end-to-end integrated grid-scale carbon-free H 2 production, storage and utilization pilot plant at a nuclear generating facility. The project also aimed to evaluate market opportunities and regulatory requirements related to the participation of integrated hydrogen production and nuclear plant facilities in organized power markets, by demonstrating dynamic control and operation of the electrolyzer and assessing the economics of dynamic participation combined with the revenue streams from hydrogen production. On March 7th , 2023 Constellation started hydrogen production at it’s Nine Mile Point Nuclear Plant in Oswego, New York. The PEM electrolyzer operating at Nine Mile Point uses 1.25 megawatt of nuclear electricity to produce 560 kilograms of clean hydrogen per day, more than enough to meet the plant’s operational hydrogen use. It will also help set the stage for possible large-scale deployments at other clean energy centers in Constellation’s fleet that would couple clean hydrogen production with storage and other on-site uses. Employing the lessons learned from the 1.25 MW demonstration-scale, nuclear-powered clean hydrogen production facility at Nine Mile Point, Constellation was a major participant in the MachH2 hydrogen hub recently selected for up to $\$$1 billion by the Department of Energy (DOE) as part of the bipartisan Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. Constellation will use a portion of the hub funding to build the world’s largest nuclear-powered clean hydrogen production facility at its LaSalle Clean Energy Center in Illinois. The project was featured in a number of news articles and press releases and received 2 awards. At the 2023 DOE HFTO’s Annual Merit Review meeting, the P.I. Dr. Uuganbayar Otgonbaatar and project manager Robert Beaumont were recognized for “outstanding achievements in the development and demonstration of a first-of-a-kind clean hydrogen production facility, powered by carbon-free nuclear energy, at the Nine Mile Point Nuclear Station in Oswego, New York.” The project was also awarded 2023 Nuclear Energy Institute’s Top Innovative Practice award.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2024

Regulations, Codes, and Standards Review for Underground Hydrogen Storage

Hydrogen continues to show promise as a viable contributor to achieving energy storage goals such as energy security and decarbonization in the United States. However, many new and expanded hydrogen use applications will require identifying methods of larger-scale storage than the solutions that currently exist for smaller storage applications. One possibility is to store large quantities of gaseous hydrogen below ground level. Underground storage of other fuels such as natural gas is already currently utilized, so much of the infrastructure and basic technologies can be used as a basis for underground hydrogen storage (UHS). A few commercial UHS facilities currently exist in the United States, including salt caverns owned and operated by Air Liquide, Linde, and Conoco Philips, but UHS is still a relatively new concept that has not been widely deployed. It is necessary to understand the safety risks and hazards associated with UHS before its use can be expanded and accepted more broadly. Many of these risks are addressed through regulations, codes, and standards (RCS) issued by governing bodies and organizations with expertise in certain hazards. This report is a review of RCS documents relevant to UHS, with a particular lens on potential technical gaps in existing guidance. These gaps may be specific to the physical properties of hydrogen or due to the different technologies relevant for hydrogen vs. natural gas storage. This is meant to be a high-level review to identify relevant documents and potential gaps. Formally addressing the individual gaps identified here within the codes and standards themselves would involve a more intensive analysis and differ based on the code or standard revision processes of the various publishing organizations. Therefore, presenting specific recommendations for revising the verbiage of the documents for UHS applications is left for future work and other publications.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2022

Unlocking the Potential of Marine Energy Using Hydrogen Generation Technologies

Marine energy, including ocean waves, ocean currents, ocean thermal gradients, tides, and river currents, is a vast and untapped resource that can be harnessed to help enable the transition to renewable energy. Marine energy is an attractive renewable resource because of its energy density, predictability, and persistence. Further, marine energy has the potential to provide energy for utility-scale applications, remote and distributed applications, and rapidly expanding maritime industries, such as aquaculture and shipping. Marine energy technologies are, however, at a nascent stage of development, and a significant amount of the resource is located far from population centers and transmission infrastructure. Accordingly, to unlock the full potential of marine energy, efficient methods of storing and transporting captured marine energy are needed so that the energy can be used when and where it is needed. A promising solution to these energy storage and transportation challenges is to combine marine energy and hydrogen generation technologies. Herein, we provide a high-level analysis of the unique value proposition and technical challenges of combining marine energy and hydrogen technologies. First, we review marine energy technologies, electrolysis technologies, and hydrogen storage methods. Next, we consider specific applications and opportunities for combining the two technologies. Finally, we identify critical R&D challenges that must be overcome to successfully combine marine energy and hydrogen generation technologies. As part of our fact-finding effort in this area, we held a workshop attended by marine energy and hydrogen technology experts from industry, academia, national labs, and government entities to explore the technical challenges and opportunities for combined marine energy and hydrogen generation systems. Our intent is that this document and the report from the workshop can be used in conjunction to help identify and direct research and development that is needed to realize the potential of marine energy-hydrogen systems.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2024

Hydrogen Infrastructure Analysis for the Port Applications [Slides]

The International Maritime Organization has committed to 50% reduction in GHG emissions by 2050 worldwide as of 2023. This analysis includes performing an inventory and modeling efforts to understand the energy, equipment and cost requirements to support decarbonization of cargo handling and shore power at U.S. Ports, along with assessment of zero- and near- zero emission fuel supplies at or near U.S. ports focused upon Hydrogen technologies. Initial market assessment for ocean going vessels for harbor support and ocean-going vessels is explored. An energy analysis is performed on the port system using a holistic approach and considering the port as an entire ecosystem that functions as a transportation and energy node. Presently, a comprehensive view is lacking for future analysis efforts, this analysis seeks to address this gap in data by evaluating four representative port types and the potential for utilizing hydrogen for the maritime industry. Every port is different, but broadly they could be bracketed into reference cases with scaling factors for the relative size of the port operations. These reference ports are for future use, potentially as baselines for analysis and development of demonstration programs. An equipment inventory for each reference port type (container, bulk, breakbulk, and inland waterway) is presented. A comparative analysis of fuel cell electric and battery electric equipment is conducted based on the following criteria: technology readiness level, refueling/charging time, operational range, energy consumption, and fuel cost savings compared to baseline internal combustion engine equipment. The tradeoffs and synergies between two alternative powertrains is highlighted. Based on energy and infrastructure analysis, average and high equipment utilization profiles across different port types is identified and quantified baseline fuel and electricity demand for various decarbonization scenarios. Based on the portfolio of equipment converted to fuel cell electric, the estimates of initial capital investment are provided for hydrogen refueling stations across ports. An energy demand model is developed that predicts well the all-electric cargo handling equipment annual energy consumption for ports with annual tonnage under 2 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs). The model is a good rubric to follow for further energy demand models that can create a scalable solution to understand the energy needs of cargo handling equipment, whether they are all-electric, hydrogen fuel cell, or powered by another fuel-type. Zero and near-zero emission fuel supply at ports is evaluated looking into the characteristics of hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol as an alternative fuel, as well as the bunkering status. The readiness of reference ports to produce ammonia or methanol and bunker the fuel is examined based on the framework developed by the Global Maritime Forum and Rocky Mountain Institute.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2025

Potential Challenges of HyBlend Storage in a Methane Reservoir Located in Southwestern United States

Hydrogen has been identified as a flexible energy carrier with zero or negative emissions across multiple energy systems. It is possible to utilize hydrogen by storing Hyblend, or hydrogen gas blended with methane, in existing natural gas infrastructure. However, the compatibility of adapting the current CH4 storage strategies to include H2 injection has not been fully demonstrated. It is essential that we understand the impact of H2 gas on the naturally occurring microbial community of subsurface storage reservoirs before deploying large-scale H2-CH4 storage. We designed a series of experiments that allowed us to identify potential geochemical and microbial challenges of HyBlend Storage in existing methane reservoirs. First, we collected and characterized field fluid samples from a methane reservoir located in southwestern United States. Next, we used these field fluid samples to complete a series of short-term reactor experiments at reservoir conditions (80 °C and ~1,000 psi) for a natural gas (100% CH4) and HyBlend(80% CH4/20% H2) storage environment to measure the transformation of gas content. We conducted both biotic and abiotic (sterilized) measurements to accurately understand and decouple abiotic and microbially driven processes. Overall, we found that our field sample was characterized by a diverse microbial community with the metabolic capacity for sulfur reduction, iron reduction, and acetogenesis. Across our reactors, there was minimal change in geochemistry.

hydrogen storage↗
DOE OSTI2024

Reference Station Risk Assessment for Refueling Heavy-Duty Vehicles Using HyRAM+

The deployment of heavy-duty (HD) hydrogen fuel cell vehicles that are entering the market now is driving the need for expanded HD hydrogen refueling station infrastructure to meet demand. This expansion must prioritize safety and reliability, necessitating careful consideration of the associated risks. In this study, we use a light-duty (LD) hydrogen refueling station as a comparative tool to quantify the risks for a HD station, which is essentially a scaled-up version of a LD station.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2025

Energy storage in combined gas-electric energy transitions models: The case of California

California’s vision for a net-zero future by 2045 relies heavily on variable renewable energy systems. Thus, energy storage - particularly long-duration storage - could play a fundamental role in reliably supplying low-carbon electricity. We study energy storage using the BRIDGES model, a combined gas-electric capacity expansion model for California across multiple investment periods (2025-2045), modeled with progressively decreasing carbon emission targets to a zero emissions by 2045. This least-cost optimization model includes renewable gas production via power-to-gas, long-term storage of energy in gaseous form, electric energy storage such as through batteries and hydrogen storage, and renewable energy generation, all with capacity tracking and investment. Multiple scenarios are evaluated to examine the sensitivity of the optimal storage portfolio to system-level and sector-level parameters. The scenario results show that all electric energy storage systems - which vary in storage duration - are deployed and required in a net-zero California in 2045, amounting to around 75 GW of storage capacity. Lithium ion systems make up approximately 80% of this power capacity and supply most short-run storage needs. Hydrogen storage - in the form of a power-to-gas-to-power system - emerges as a replacement to conventional natural gas storage, comprising most of the total energy storage capacity (~ 4 TWh). This capacity is less than 5% of the current natural gas storage capacity (94 TWh), indicating sufficient room for repurposing part of the gas infrastructure. A demand-side sensitivity analysis proves that higher electricity demand correlates with more builds of Li-ion batteries, while higher industrial heat demand leads to more builds of long-duration storage systems in a net-zero economy. Furthermore, power-to-gas systems satisfy part of the industrial heat demand by locally supplying renewable gas, which overtakes the traditional centralized gas storage and transfers through pipelines, casting significant doubts on the future of the large-scale gas infrastructure.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2024

Hydrogen Transportation and Distributed Energy Systems Risk and Feasibility Assessment for Airport Facilities - CRADA 555 (Abstract)

This CRADA presents the strategy that Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) and Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) will take to support PDX in performing a risk assessment for several hydrogen deployment scenarios. It is intended that the deployment of hydrogen at PDX could serve several roles, including decarbonizing its bus fleet and building out a distributed energy system which could also be used to facilitate emergency operations. PDX’s initial plans concern replacing their current fleet of 28 busses with FCEBs. To do so, PDX will need to deploy the hydrogen systems needed to support the buses. This includes hydrogen storage, production, delivery, filling, compression, and maintenance. PDX also has long range plans to build a distributed energy system to support normal and resilient operations. This study will investigate the risks of each plan individually, and a combined plan which serves both. Additionally, PDX is in an area with the potential for high seismic activity, as such this work will also include a seismic risk assessment. A detailed risk assessment using PDX as a test case is necessary to ensure the deployment of large-scale hydrogen is successful and to understand the benefits or drawbacks in contrast to electric only technologies. Many technologies have been proposed that claim to utilize hydrogen for both transportation and distributed energy systems; however, these technologies need to be analyzed as they apply to an actual site. The physical infrastructure and hydrogen use cases for PDX will be analyzed, a risk assessment will be performed on the hydrogen infrastructure and distributed energy system. These assessments will be useful for understanding how each of these technologies would perform as applied to a large public facility and public safety. The results of this CRADA, and an impact of the DOE funding, will evaluate hydrogen as a key fuel for PDX and will accelerate by several years availability of hydrogen, fuel cells, and other low-carbon technologies.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2022

2020 Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Market Report

This report features summaries of relevant hydrogen and fuel cell activity in 2020, consistent with prior annual reports across applications and sectors. However, 2020 was no ordinary year. Despite pandemic hardships, the hydrogen and fuel cell industry not only stepped up to assist with humanitarian and healthcare efforts but saw continued momentum in several growing market sectors with numerous partnerships, initiatives, and investments. Using hydrogen and fuel cell technologies to provide an environmental and economic pathway to clean, reliable power was a key feature of world economic recovery and energy infrastructure plans. Today, hydrogen energy and fuel cell systems are being developed and deployed in a range of stationary power, portable power, and transportation applications around the world. Throughout 2020, there were significant achievements in each sector, building on years of research and development (R&D), field testing, large-scale demonstration projects, and real-world customer experience. The heavy-duty truck market in particular continued to make substantial gains, with new players entering the space and a coalition of companies pledging to produce and deploy more than 100,000 fuel cell trucks in the next two decades. To provide hydrogen for trucks and other end users, larger and larger electrolyzer projects were announced throughout the year. Collectively, there were more than 430 megawatts (MW) of electrolyzer systems either deployed, ordered, or proposed around the world. This 2020 report also provides special “Spotlights” on the collective industry response to the COVID-19 pandemic as well as international commitments and hydrogen strategies, providing overviews of significant activity during and after the initial onset of COVID-19 around the world.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2024

Second Target Station Project: STS Cross-Directorate Workshop on Hydrogen Fuel

Hydrogen, particularly green hydrogen produced through electrolysis using renewable energy, is poised to play a critical role in decarbonizing the global economy. Its ability to address the intermittency of renewable energy sources and decarbonize hard-to-electrify sectors positions it as a vital component of a sustainable energy future. Interest in hydrogen as a clean energy carrier is in a decade of unprecedented growth, with dozens of countries having released national hydrogen strategies contributing to a global hydrogen economy. In 2021, the Department of Energy (DOE) announced the Hydrogen Shot, the first of the Energy Earthshot Initiatives, which aims to lower the cost of clean hydrogen to $\$$1/kg by 2031. This initiative was followed by a considerable increase in funding for hydrogen technologies through the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL), with $\$$18 billion recently announced for regional demonstration projects (Hydrogen Hubs) and another $\$$11.5 billion aimed at research and development of electrolyzers, fuel cells, manufacturing, and recycling. The 2023 U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap identifies the cost of clean hydrogen as a critical challenge for achieving economic scale. This includes the cost of hydrogen production by electrolysis, delivery and dispensing, onboard storage, and end-use technologies like fuel cells. Fundamental research and development into catalysts, component architectures, and material durability are critical to lower the costs of these vital technologies aimed at achieving a net-zero carbon emission economy by 2050.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2026

Hydrogen Infrastructure Modeling and Optimization

HyET, established in 2008, is a small business developing electro-chemical hydrogen compressors. HyET’s goals are for a low-cost, efficient, high-pressure compressor ready for market and installation into hydrogen infrastructure stations servicing mobile fuel cell applications. NLR has been working on hydrogen infrastructure research for over a decade and includes electrolyzer production via electrolysis, storage, compression, dispensing, safety, and performance validation. Accelerating technologies into the marketplace is one goal of NLR’s hydrogen research. Therefore, HyET and NLR have teamed up to provide one year of support for HyET’s modeling and small-scale experiments optimization efforts for HyET’s next-generation electro-chemical compressor.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2021

Maximizing Solar and Transportation Synergies

This report considers the technological and market pathways that will enable better use of photovoltaic (PV) electricity as fuel for future transportation demand. Most of the pathways identified will require collaborative research and development (R&D) efforts to improve the capabilities of multiple technologies, including PV, energy storage, vehicles, electrolyzers, electrofuels, and infrastructure. For plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs), technologies that enable wide-scale managed and coordinated charging are among the highest priorities for continued research, development, and deployment in the near term. Furthermore, managed and coordinated charging capabilities are foundational for future vehicle-to-grid (V2G) functionality in the long term. For hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), the use of PV electricity for electrolysis provides an opportunity to increase PV deployment. For rail, air, and maritime transportation, the feasibility of increased PV use varies in the near term; opportunities for synergies with solar include the electrification of rail, increased reliability from airport microgrids, and switching from heavy fuel oil to clean maritime electrofuels made from PV-based hydrogen. Over the longer term, battery swap stations for electric airplanes and the co-location of solar with hydrogen fueling stations at shipping ports may enable greater synergies between PV and transportation.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2022

Hydrogen Storage for Flexible Fossil Fuel Power Generation: Integration of Underground Hydrogen Storage with Gas Turbine (Final Report)

As the nation continues to encourage, through market structures and financial incentives, the proliferation of intermittent renewable electricity, how to optimize the ever-changing electric grid and identify means to retain and improve resilience, while ensuring continued reductions in GHG emissions, will be critical. According to Bloomberg, wind & solar generated 10.5% of US electricity in 2020 and that percentage continues to grow. In support of expanding renewable energy use, and to address its intermittent nature, this project will develop the Hydrogen Storage for Flexible Fossil Fuel Power Generation platform that is dispatchable, reliable, repeatable and have the ability to produce zero or negative carbon power while interfacing with geology capable of CO2 and hydrogen storage. GTI Energy (GTIE) and team members Illinois State Geological Survey (ISGS), Mitsubishi Heavy Industries America (MHIA), Ameren Illinois, Hexagon Purus, and the Low Carbon Resources Initiative (LCRI) completed a Phase I Conceptual Study under contract DE-FE0032012 for Hydrogen Storage for Flexible Fossil Fuel Power Generation: Integration of Underground Hydrogen Storage with Gas Turbine. The Hydrogen Storage for Flexible Fossil Fuel Power Generation platform addresses the intermittent nature of the expanding use of Variable Renewable Energy (VRE) generation. The low cost of the electricity (COE) generated results in greater dispatch and more operation at higher power levels (higher efficiency), fewer short intervals, and fewer start/stop cycles. The reliable, resilient system can produce zero carbon power and store hydrogen. It will demonstrate hydrogen storage in geologic formations like those used in natural gas underground storage thus enabling large scale storage of hydrogen in sedimentary strata across the United States rather than in geographically restricted salt caverns. The Phase I study confirmed the system is feasible and generates power at lower cost than other low carbon approaches. The demonstration defines the pathway for broad commercial application and will accelerate the development of larger systems suitable for centralized utility scale electricity production. The study advanced the maturity of the H 2 storage-based system with flexible power generation by completing a Pre-FEED study (Phase II). The Pre-FEED focused on the selected Energy Farm on the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) site that includes above ground and underground hydrogen storage, low-carbon hydrogen production (GTI’s Compact Hydrogen Generator, CHG) with underground CO2 sequestration, and a 40-MW class gas turbine. The Pre-FEED addressed the entire system and its interconnection to the natural gas and electric grid and mitigation of key risks, such as storage behavior, load-following, and system operation. During Phase 1 of the project, the team completed key tasks, which moved the entire demonstration project, specific components and approaches closer to commercialization. These Phase I Accomplishments include: Completing System Requirements Review; Completing System Layout and Modeling - Heat & Mass Balance and Process Flow Diagram; Completing modelling of 9 turbine performance cases; Evaluating rock strata for underground storage of hydrogen and sequestration of carbon dioxide; Completing initial modelling of underground storage of hydrogen and withdrawal with evaluation of loss and water production; Identifying roadable storage for above ground hydrogen storage; Identifying existing electrical infrastructure for receiving/delivering electricity; Identifying existing gas supply infrastructure for receiving natural gas; Document concept design/development plans in required reports. Conclusions: The 12-month Feasibility study in Phase I study was completed and confirmed the system is feasible and generates power at lower cost than other low carbon approaches and even lower cost than the reference NGCC plant without carbon capture when taking advantage of 45Q carbon credits. The study enabled the fidelity of the concept to be improved and allowed identification of the requirements for the system. Defining the individual system and component requirements was performed via the system requirements review with the whole team. These requirements were then incorporated into and iterated with our Heat & Mass Balance process model and process flow diagrams were generated to reflect the overall system. This information was then used to complete the TEA and show economic feasibility. Large scale non-salt geologic storage of hydrogen is an enabling technology for a hydrogen-fired turbine that can be retrofitted into large-scale electric generating units (EGU). Our demonstration will include 428 MWh or ~4 hours full load of hydrogen storage (above and underground). Carbon capture inherent to the CHG process can capture 90% CO 2 (with upgrades to >98%). This system provides a COE of 23% savings relative to an NGCC with a post combustion amine system. Our proposed storage system decouples carbon capture and hydrogen production from power production; therefore, we expect our proposed system’s efficiency and variable COE to be superior resulting in overall higher dispatch and reduced deep cycling. Our demonstration will be full to multi-day hydrogen storage and has the potential for longer (seasonal) duration commercially. The demonstration defines the pathway for broad commercial application and will accelerate the development of larger systems suitable for centralized utility scale electricity production.

03 NATURAL GAS↗
DOE OSTI2025

Potential Risks Associated with Short-Term Hydrogen Storage in Methane Reservoirs

Hydrogen (H2) has been identified as a flexible energy carrier with zero emissions. It is possible to utilize H2 by storing Hyblend, or H2 blended with CH4, in existing natural gas infrastructure. However, the compatibility of adapting the current CH4 storage strategies to include H2 injection has not been fully demonstrated. It is essential that we understand the impact of H2 gas on the naturally occurring microbial community of subsurface storage reservoirs before deploying large-scale H2-CH4 storage. We designed a series of experiments that allowed us to identify potential challenges of HyBlend Storage in existing methane reservoirs (Figure 1). First, we characterized two field fluid samples from a methane reservoir located in Western United States. Next, we used these samples to complete a series of short-term reactor experiments at reservoir conditions for a natural gas (100% CH4) and HyBlend (80% CH4/20% H2) storage environment.

geomicrobiology↗
DOE OSTI2024

Evaluation of Hydrogen Storage Quantity Limits for Safety Requirements

As hydrogen storage facilities increase in size and capacity, it may be necessary to evaluate codes and standards that regulate hydrogen, especially in relation to allowable aggregate quantities. Existing regulations for other substances with comparable hazards such as oxygen, natural gas, and petroleum were reviewed; most fuels do not have aggregate quantity limits despite sometimes having individual tank capacity restrictions or limits for certain non-industrial, indoor, or small-scale applications. This precedent suggests that specifying a hydrogen quantity limit may not be necessary. Several possible methods for identifying an appropriate limit are presented to illustrate different approaches for a limit basis. These methods are based on overall risk, or the specific consequences inflicted by a jet fire or an explosion on people and infrastructure. However, these example metrics tend to require assumptions about potential leak sizes, suggesting that a general aggregate quantity limit would be difficult to justify without more system-specific requirements.

08 HYDROGEN↗
DOE OSTI2021

Renewable Energy Systems in the Transition of North America to Net Zero Emissions

The North American transition to low-carbon energy sources depends on the technology decisions of its diverse communities and stakeholders. Each region and industry will have its own portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet the common goal of net zero emissions. Our presentation will share integrated renewable energy solutions being explored at scale by major U.S cities, rural regions dependent on oil and gas, and industries redefining their infrastructure and their missions. Case examples will be presented on: the Los Angeles 100% renewable energy goals; challenges and opportunities of decarbonizing and reducing emissions from the oil and gas industry; repurposing oil and gas infrastructure such as using pipelines for hydrogen blends and renewable natural gas and idle wells for geothermal energy and energy storage; treatment of produced water using renewable energy for agriculture applications; and the preserving water and agricultural resources in the transition to renewable energy. Key challenges will also be discussed, including resilience to increasing disasters, stranded assets, unequal community impact, and meeting the last 5-20% of energy with renewable energy.

challenges↗
DOE OSTI2020

How Advanced Hydrogen Fueling Protocols Can Improve Fueling Performance and H2 Station Design

This presentation introduces concepts to lower the cost of hydrogen fueling by making improvements to the existing SAE J2601 protocols and by utilizing completely new protocol approaches that can facilitate customer acceptable fueling at warmer hydrogen pre-cooling temperatures. These methods would reduce the cost of chillers at the station, reduce energy consumption, and increase station reliability without sacrificing fueling performance. These approaches are especially applicable to high flow fueling at 70 MPa, a key aspect of H2@Scale, wherein station energy consumption and customer sensitivity to fuel costs is even more prominent than it is for light-duty fueling.

ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗