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DOE OSTI2020

Benefits and risks of lead halide perovskite photovoltaics

Photovoltaics (PV) do not emit anything during operation, but, over their life-cycle, emissions are generated from the use of fossil-fuels in the extraction and production of materials and in the manufacturing and installation of PV components and systems. Nonetheless, these emissions are always very small compared to those from conventional combustion-based generators of electricity. The case for CO2 emissions has been well documented; over their lifetime, they range from 10 g CO2-eq / kWh for CdTe PV system installed in high-irradiation (2300 kWh/(m2-yr) locations to 80 g CO2-eq / kWh for Chinese single-crystalline silicon PV systems installed in low-irradiation (1000 kWh/(m2-yr) locations,1 compared to ~1000 g CO2-eq/kWh for electricity from coal. However, in the case of the rapidly emerging lead halide perovskite PV (LHP-PV) technology, concerns are raised regarding the potential of emissions of lead from the life-cycles of LHP-PV, including at their end of life. This warranted an evaluation of lead emissions from PV and comparisons with emissions in other power generation life-cycles.

Perovskites, PV, Lead, Risks↗

DOE OSTI2026

Extending Component Lifetime And Improving Inverter Reliability (ECLAIIR)

Inverter reliability remains one of the most persistent challenges limiting the performance, availability, and economic viability of utility‑scale photovoltaic (PV) plants. Industry data consistently show that inverters account for the highest share of corrective maintenance events and unplanned outages across PV fleets. These failures result in energy losses, increased O&M costs, and reduced confidence in long‑term solar asset performance. Motivated by these challenges, this project—Extending Component Lifetime and Improving Inverter Reliability (ECLAIIR)—was undertaken to systematically investigate inverter degradation and failure mechanisms, develop predictive maintenance capabilities, and establish data‑driven pathways to improve service life and reduce the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) for large‑scale PV systems. The primary goal of the project was to identify pre‑failure signatures in string inverters using both lab‑based accelerated lifetime testing and field‑based data and to develop predictive maintenance algorithms that can anticipate inverter faults before they occur. Through collaboration with inverter testing laboratory, solar PV plant owner, and failure‑analysis experts, the project advanced the technical understanding of inverter reliability. By instrumenting inverters with thermistors, humidity sensors, power‑quality meters, and acoustic sensors, the research established how multiple sensing modalities can reliably detect deviations from normal behavior hours to days before failure. These findings substantially enhance scientific understanding of inverter failure kinetics and provide the PV industry with the most comprehensive cross‑OEM characterization of early‑stage failure indicators reported to date. Technically, the project demonstrated the effectiveness of predictive maintenance by developing and validating the PreDICT (Predictive Diagnostics of PV Inverters Using Condition Monitoring and Trend Analysis) framework—a multi‑layer diagnostic architecture combining peer‑to‑peer analytics, historical trend modeling, and advanced machine‑learning techniques such as the Sequential Conditional Variational Autoencoder (SCVAE). This predictive model achieved more than 90% accuracy in detecting pre‑failure conditions and provided up to four days of lead time before inverter failure in field scenarios. Economically, the project’s LCOE analysis showed that predictive maintenance can reduce lifetime energy losses and minimize corrective maintenance interventions. Modeling indicated that, depending on inverter failure rates and replacement timelines, predictive maintenance can significantly reduce LCOE impacts associated with inverter downtime: from as high as 19.4% under conventional maintenance strategies to 0.1%–10.17% when predictive analytics are adopted. These results confirm that predictive maintenance is both technically feasible and economically advantageous for utilities and plant operators. The project’s findings also have broad public benefit. By improving inverter reliability and reducing downtime, predictive maintenance directly increases electricity generation from existing PV assets. Enhanced reliability lowers operational costs for utilities, which can translate over time into lower energy costs for consumers. Furthermore, the project’s technical publications, conference presentations, and industry workshops ensure that knowledge gained is shared broadly across the solar industry, supporting workforce development and enabling utilities of all sizes to adopt modern asset‑health monitoring practices. The retrofitting case study and service‑life prediction framework further support informed decision‑making for aging PV fleets, helping operators extend system life and reduce electronic waste. In summary, the ECLAIIR project significantly advanced the state of knowledge on inverter degradation, demonstrated the technical and economic value of predictive maintenance, and delivered actionable tools and insights that support more reliable, cost‑effective, and sustainable PV plant operation. The outcomes of this project will continue to inform utility practices, guide inverter design improvements, and strengthen the long‑term performance of solar assets nationwide.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Silver-carbon-nanotube composite metallization for increased durability of silicon solar cells against cell cracks

One of the ways to reduce the cost of solar electricity is to reduce the degradation rate of solar modules and extend their lifetime well beyond 30 years. The extended module lifetime translates to increased bankability of utility-scale PV projects. In this work, we specifically address cell-crack-induced degradation by introducing crack-tolerant metallization. Herein, we make use of low-cost, multi-walled carbon nanotubes embedded in commercial screen-printable silver pastes as a highly integratable engineering solution. When the carbon nanotubes are appropriately functionalized and incorporated into commercial silver pastes, the resulting metal contacts on solar cells, after screen-printing and firing, show exceptional fracture toughness. These composite metal contacts possess increased ductility, electrical gap-bridging capability greater than 50 µm, and “self-healing” to regain electrical continuity even after cycles of complete electrical failure under large strain. While providing crack-tolerant mechanical properties, the composite paste delivers similar beginning-of-life cell performance as the conventional silver paste.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2022

In-situ Characterizations of Microstructural Degradation of Perovskite Solar Cells

Rapid progress has been achieved in perovskite solar cells (PSCs), and their efficiencies have improved from 3.8 % to 24.2 % in less than a decade. With low-cost processing, PSCs have shown exciting photovoltaic (PV) properties, such as effective optical absorption, a long carrier lifetime, and unique defect tolerance. While recent studies demonstrated improved stability up to 100 days, PSC technology is still challenged to meet the stringent industry requirements for commercialization. Despite considerable efforts, the underlying physical mechanisms for the inferior stability of PSCs are not well understood. One reason for this divergence is that many established measurement techniques (e.g., quantum efficiency, photoluminescence) probe the properties on length scales far greater than that of electronic and/or structural inhomogeneity (i.e., < 1 μm near grain boundaries) and therefore characterize convoluted and/or averaged properties. Ion/electron beam-based techniques have been extensively used to access the microstructures of PSCs, enabling atomic/nanoscale structural, chemical, optical, and electrical characterizations. For example, focused ion beam (FIB) milling produces an atomically smooth surface that minimizes the artifacts attributed to the surface roughness. FIB techniques can also create a well-defined cross-section of PSCs without mechanical damage in a physical cleaving sample preparation. While powerful, there are some concerns about possible beam damage of inorganic-organic perovskites via chemical-bond breakage and local heating. This project aims to comprehensively understand how the microstructural/interfacial properties of PSCs (e.g., Methylammonium Lead Iodide [MAPbI 3 ]) are modified under the irradiating ion beams. Specifically, we investigate the sub-surface properties of PSCs before and after Ar-ion beam injections. Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) measures the contact potential differences (CPDs). Photoluminescence (PL) microscopy in conjunction with Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) simulations infers the formation of a “dead layer” (< 15 nm) on the subsurface of MAPbI 3 during Ar+ milling processes while preserving the initial bulk properties. The x-ray photoemission spectroscopy (XPS) confirms this modified surface is a lead-rich and iodine-deficient surface. We initiate customizing in-situ measurement setup while measuring the local optical and electrical properties of PSC under thermal (cooling, heating) and light stressors. Our results provide in-depth knowledge of the ion-beam impact on metal-halide perovskites and how this modified sub-surface impacts their properties under accelerated stressors of light and heat. Intensive Monte Carlo simulations of an electron beam interacting with PSCs provide the beam energy distribution in PSCs, proposing possible measurement conditions of using e-beam with minimizing beam damage. Our in-situ measurement platform can accommodate the diverse architecture of PSC devices for studying deterioration mechanisms under mixed environmental stressors.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

PV Evolution in the Light of Circular Economy

As photovoltaic (PV) deployments increase, the increasing material volume presents challenges throughout the supply chain and eventual end-of-life waste management. Quantifying the value of lifetime, reliability, repair, reuse, recycling, and other options to increase circularity can help identify and prioritize research and technical solutions required to integrate PV into the circular economy. In this work, we capture the evolution of PV module technology, such as improved reliability and increasing market share of glass/glass modules. We discuss material circularity, lifetime and reliability, and energy return on investment as quantitative metrics to define and evaluate circularity and sustainability.

bifacial↗

DOE OSTI2022

Future-proofing photovoltaics module reliability through a unifying predictive modeling framework

Solar energy, especially photovoltaics (PV), plays a significant role in the global energy transition required for decarbonization. Technological advancements in increasing efficiencies coupled with cost reductions through economies of scale made PV a cost-competitive energy source set to exceed the milestone of 1 TW globally deployed capacity in 2022. However, ongoing downward price pressure coupled with increasing service life expectations creates tremendous challenges for reliability engineers in ensuring the safe and reliable operation of PV modules and systems over the anticipated service life. Today's reliability research efforts aim for module lifetimes of up to 50 years. Still, our current tools fall short in accurately assessing degradation mechanisms and failure modes over such extended periods. We argue that the well-established PV reliability learning cycle needs to be accelerated to keep up with the rapid technological advancements and high expectations that are put on PV and its role in the global energy transition. In this article, we explore the evolution of the PV reliability learning cycle and highlight the significance that predictive modeling capabilities will have on future PV module reliability. We propose creating a unifying modeling framework - which once established will enable the holistic assessment of PV module reliability, accelerate the PV reliability learning cycle, and bring us closer to quantitative service life predictions of PV modules.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Perovskite Solar Cells Go Bifacial—Mutual Benefits for Efficiency and Durability

Bifacial solar cells hold the potential to achieve a higher power output per unit area than conventional monofacial devices without significantly increasing manufacturing costs. However, efficient bifacial designs are challenging to implement in inorganic thin-film solar cells because of their short carrier lifetimes and high rear surface recombination. The emergence of perovskite photovoltaic (PV) technology creates a golden opportunity to realize efficient bifacial thin-film solar cells, owing to their outstanding optoelectronic properties and unique features of device physics. More importantly, transparent conducting oxide electrodes can prevent electrode corrosion by halide ions, mitigating one major instability issue of the perovskite devices. Here, the theory of bifacial PV devices is summarized and the advantages of bifacial perovskite solar cells, such as high power output, enhanced device durability, and low economic and environmental costs, are reviewed. The limitations and challenges for bifacial perovskite solar cells are also discussed. Lastly, the awareness of bifacial solar cells as a feasible commercialization pathway of perovskite PV for mainstream solar power generation and building-integrated PV is advocated and future research directions are suggested.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

A Circularity Assessment for Silicon Solar Panels Based on Dynamic Material Flow Analysis

Solar photovoltaics (PV) are the fastest growing renewable energy technology for clean, inexpensive, and sustainable electricity generation. Along with numerous technical roadmaps to improve system cost, performance and reliability, the PV industry should also plan to handle large volumes of silicon panel waste, which is initially estimated to be ~13 million metric tons (MT) by 2050 in the U.S. alone. Understanding the magnitude of material needs and how material flows throughout the PV panel life cycle could respond to design, operational and different end-of-life (EOL) circular pathways will help transition into a circular, resource-conserving economy. Herein, we introduce a dynamic material flow analysis (DMFA) framework based on electricity generation to quantify time-series stocks and flows of bulk PV materials (e.g., solar glass and aluminum frames) throughout the life cycles of utility-scale silicon PV systems in the U.S. in the period 2000-2100. We apply the model to a range of scenarios to understand how material demands depend on selected PV-related parameters, different material circularity strategies, and recent module design trends (e.g., bifacial, frameless). We found that float glass and aluminum in PV installations would likely reach 100 million MT and 12 million MT by 2100, respectively, in the baseline scenario. The most influential parameters for PV installation and subsequent waste reduction are found to be module lifetime, module efficiency, annual degradation, and material reduction. Module recycling and component remanufacturing were found to be the most effective material circularity strategies for waste minimization. Panel reuse has negligible savings on waste under current module efficiencies compared to replacements with newer generations with higher efficiency. Ongoing trends to produce larger power frameless modules could save 10 million MT of glass and ~9 million MT of aluminum. Our results enable advanced planning for future materials needs and provide insight into potential opportunities to minimize waste.

70 PLASMA PHYSICS AND FUSION TECHNOLOGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

A Circularity Assessment for Silicon Solar Panels Based on Dynamic Material Flow Analysis: Preprint

circular economy↗

DOE OSTI2020

Round-robin weathering test of various polymeric back-sheets for PV modules with different ultraviolet irradiation and sample temperatures

Durability assessment of materials exposed to natural weathering with expected service lifetimes of more than 20 years requires accelerated testing of the UV stability, especially for polymeric materials. Fraunhofer ISE organized an interlaboratory comparison for testing different back-sheets in various test laboratories using different UV sources. The five participating test laboratories used three different types of UV sources. The interaction of the UV radiation with the polymers used in PV modules is main subject of this round-robin. Laminates were produced by using solar glass and a suitable EVA encapsulant combined with 10 different back-sheets. The simultaneous usage of different optical filters allowed to investigate roughly the spectral sensitivity and the intensity impact. The degradation was followed by spectral reflectance and transmittance measurements and calculation of the yellowness index as degradation indicator. Clear differences in the degradation behavior of the different products were found.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2025

Historical and Future Learning for the New Era of Multi-Terawatt Photovoltaics

Solar photovoltaics (PV) is entering a new era of multi-terawatt deployment, with 2 TW already in service and more than 75 TW predicted in many scenarios by 2050. This next era has been enabled by over five decades of cumulative advances in PV module cost reduction, performance and reliability. The current scale of deployment also introduces new needs, opportunities and challenges. In this Perspective we frame a path forwards based on learning, broadly defined as a combination of expansion of knowledge and advances through research and development, experience and collaboration. We discuss historical topics where learning has driven PV deployment until now, and emerging areas that are required to sustain high levels of future deployment. We expect progress to continue in terms of module price, performance and reliability, driven by advances in PV cell and module design, the emergence of tandem devices and increased focus on extending module lifetimes. Large-scale deployment also means large-scale sustainability and responsibility. We therefore posit that additional metrics, such as the impact on global CO2 emissions, resource consumption and design for reuse and recycling, will become increasingly important to the PV industry and provide opportunities for further learning.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2024

Rapid Characterization and Statistical Analysis of High-Volume Field-Harvested Photovoltaic Connectors

Photovoltaic (PV) installations heavily depend on connectors for efficient module and string interconnections without requiring skilled labor. Yet this seemingly innocuous component of PV systems is a leading cause of module failures, multiple high-profile fires, and lawsuits in the PV industry. This work aims to answer critical questions regarding why connectors fail and the contributing factors to their failure. The study involves collecting and analyzing more than 17,000 field-harvested connectors from various solar installations across the United States. The vast dataset, which includes connector metadata, visual inspections, and resistance measurements, provides unprecedented insight into the state of health of PV connectors across the US, including the geographic locations, connector types, and installation practices most prone to failures. The work presented here describes a novel rapid characterization method for processing large numbers of connectors and is supported by parallel forensic analysis to discern the root causes of failures as well as a levelized cost of lifetime model to determine the economic ramifications of connector failure. Ultimately, the findings may inform PV developers about the best practices to extend connector longevity and lead to more resilient and reliable PV systems.

connectors↗

DOE OSTI2020

Solving the duck curve in a smart grid environment using a non-cooperative game theory and dynamic pricing profiles

With the intermittency that comes with electricity generation from renewables, utilizing dynamic pricing will encourage the demand-side to respond in a smart way that would minimize the electricity costs and flatten the net electricity demand curve. Determining the optimal dynamic pricing profile that would leverage distributed storage to flatten the curve is a novel idea that needs to be studied. Moreover, the economic feasibility of utilizing distributed electrical energy storage is still not given in the literature. Therefore, in this paper, a novel way of solving a citywide dynamic model using a bilevel programming algorithm is introduced. The problem is developed as a novel non-cooperative Stackelberg game that utilizes air-conditioning systems and electrical storage through the end-users to determine the optimal dynamic pricing profile. The results show that the combined effect of utilizing demand-side air-conditioning systems and distributed storage together can flatten the curve while employing the optimal dynamic pricing profile. An economic study is performed to determine the economic feasibility of 20 different cases with different battery designs and the level of solar penetration. Three metrics were used to evaluate the economic performance of each case: the levelized cost of storage, the levelized cost of energy, and the simple payback period. Most cases had levelized cost of storage values lower than 0.457 $/kWh, which is the lower bound available in the literature. Seven out of 16 cases have a simple payback period shorter than the lifetime of the system (25 years). The case with a 100 MW PV power plant and a battery storage of size 597 MWh, was found to be the most promising case with a simple payback period of 12.71 years for the photovoltaic plant and 19.86 years for the demand-side investments.

29 ENERGY PLANNING, POLICY, AND ECONOMY↗

DOE OSTI2021

Quantifying Bulk and Surface Recombination in CdTe Solar Cells Using Time-Resolved Terahertz Spectroscopy

Understanding the nature of recombination mechanisms is essential for higher power conversion efficiency in photovoltaic (PV) devices. Here we use a combination of time-resolved terahertz spectroscopy and numerical modeling to determine the bulk Shockley-Read-Hall lifetime and interface and back surface recombination velocities in CdTe thin film stacks. Furthermore, the measurement was facilitated by fabricating wire-grid device structures using conventional laser scribing. Evaluation of a glass/FTO/SnO2/CdS/CdTe stack treated with CdCl2 allowed separation of the CdTe absorber bulk lifetime, 1.6 ns, from the back surface recombination velocity, ~6x10 4 cm/s, and indicated that CdTe/CdS interface recombination velocity had no significant impact on carrier dynamics.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2020

Linear viscoelastic characterization of electrically conductive adhesives used as interconnect in photovoltaic modules

Electrically conductive adhesives (ECAs) are incorporated into recent designs of photovoltaic (PV) modules and replace the traditional metallic solders as interconnects. This transition depicts a significant material change, and a proper understanding of the interconnects' mechanical response has not yet been established. However, such an understanding is necessary to (a) identify the driving forces for module degradation and failure, (b) allow for module design optimization, and (c) enable accurate lifetime predictions. This study summarizes the framework for the mechanical materials characterization and modeling of ECAs for PV applications. Only high-fidelity material models are able to capture the rate and temperature dependency of the ECA interconnect and allow for accurate modeling of the materials response. Furthermore, a linear viscoelastic representation is found to describe the mechanical response of the ECAs sufficiently well. The effects of curing conditions and environmental exposure are investigated, and material models for a variety of ECAs are reported and prepared for the use in numerical simulations. Overall, a finite element simulation of a generic submodel of a shingled cell module is used to highlight the need for high-fidelity material models and demonstrates the error made in the predicted stress states by using less sophisticated models.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

State-by-State comparison of combined heat and power to photovoltaic installations at manufacturing facilities with heat and power loads

Manufacturing facilities with large electricity and steam loads commonly meet those loads with a grid and boiler (GB) system configuration. In this study, two alternatives, a natural gas turbine cycle driven combined heat and power (CHP) system configuration and a grid boiler system augmented with photovoltaics (GB-PV), are investigated sustainable manufacturing in reference to the GB system configuration. For this purpose, their discounted payback period (DPP), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and nitrogen oxides (NO x ) emission reductions, and primary fossil energy impacts are calculated. The major contribution of this study is that it directly compares the application of both CHP and PV technologies at an assumed manufacturing facility in all 50 states of the United States. This highlights the location-specific impacts of the facility. The examined manufacturing facility utility requirements are 5 MW of power and over 12,000 kg/h of 250 kPa and 400 K saturated steam. A DPP of less than 25 years, the technology lifetime, is found in 44 states for the CHP system configuration and 6 states for the GB-PV system configuration. GB-PV and CHP cost-effectively reduce CO 2 in 44 and 38 states, respectively. CHP is better for NO x reduction, whereas GB-PV is better for primary fossil energy reduction.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗

DOE OSTI2021

PV Evolution in the Light of Circular Economy: Preprint

An ideal circular economy has no waste, end-of-life resources become new goods, and all production loops are closed. For the photovoltaic industry’s growing waste problem, quantifying the value of lifetime, reliability, repair, reuse, recycling and other options to increase circularity can help identify and prioritize research needs. In this work we capture the evolution of PV module technology, such as improved reliability and increasing market share of glass/glass modules. We then study the material and energy flows for PV production and use, and identify the circular processes and pathways yielding the most impact. We discuss material circularity and energy return on investment as quantitative metrics to define and evaluate circularity.

bifacial↗

DOE OSTI2021

Reliability and Power Degradation Rates of PERC Modules Using Differentiated Packaging Strategies and Characterization Tools

The reliability, durability and lifetime performance of passivated emitter, rear cell (PERC) modules used in real-world PV power plants is a critical challenge underlying the rapid adoption and bankability of these PERC cells, whose high efficiency help reduce the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE). We propose a degradation-science study of PERC module degradation pathways, benchmarking them relative to known degradation mechanisms and pathways of the incumbent aluminum back surface field (Al-BSF) modules exposed to real-world and accelerated exposure conditions.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗