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DOE OSTI2026

Development of large-scale, 3D Printed high temperature ceramic material

Through this collaborative effort, a new 3D printing platform for ceramics called laser-induced slip casting (LIS) was explored and developed for improving the processing and manufacture of silicon carbide (SiC), a high temperature ceramic material. This method prints layers of ceramic slips/slurries with subsequent selective-laser heating to dry each layer to build a 3D structure. The completed and dried part is then sintered. This manufacturing process is inherently lower cost than alternative ceramic printing methods such as binder jet technology or stereolithography when it comes to the feedstock material but is more expensive than robocasting or direct ink writing. However, it has the potential to make more controlled parts with less defects compared to robocasting. The largest cost is the heating source for the printer. With this technique, there is potential to make large ceramic parts in a near-net shape. Further, there is no known commercial manufacturing of 3D printed ceramics that creates a large range of different high-density ceramics at large scale. The goals and outcomes for the development of the new printing technology were: 1) assessing the technology with alumina by characterizing coupons, 2) printing and sintering of silicon carbide (SiC), and 3) characterization and properties testing of materials printed and a scale-up of SiC part(s). Through this collaborative project, it was sought to provide the best solution to achieving highly dense and near-net shaped ceramic parts at large scale and reduced cost. The goal was to produce high density sintered materials for applications in defense, energy generating systems, armor, and wear parts using 3D printing methods. Variables including powder particle sizes, dispersant molecular weights (MWs), binders, printing parameters, and post processing were explored as well as the characterization of the physical properties (add specifics here).

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2025

Bi‐Continuous W‐Rich Refractory High Entropy Alloy‐Cu Composite: Toward Material Innovation of Nuclear Reactor Coolant System

Abstract Refractory high‐entropy alloys (RHEAs) are considered promising candidate materials for next‐generation nuclear reactors due to their superior mechanical strength, irradiation resistance, and thermal stability at high temperatures. However, the significant positive heat of mixing between refractory alloying elements and Cu, commonly used in cooling systems, poses challenges in forming composite structures. This study addresses the issue using a liquid metal dealloying (LMD) process. A precursor alloy (WTaVTi) with a directional dendrite‐interdendrite structure is fabricated and reacted with molten Cu at 1200 °C for 96 h. This approach produced a RHEA‐Cu composite with a stable interface between RHEA (W 31.5 Ta 30.9 V 21.4 Ti 14.3 ) and Cu, featuring a spontaneously formed W‐rich interlayer that enhances interfacial bonding. The composite showed excellent irradiation resistance, with 30% less swelling under α‐ion irradiation than pure W. It also exhibited low thermal conductivity at room temperature, but reached ≈120 W m −1 ·K −1 at ≈650 °C, surpassing pure W. This temperature‐dependent rise in κ, with a positive gradient of +0.075 W m −1 ·K − 2 , is attributed to decreasing diffuse mismatch at elevated temperatures. The large‐scale reaction and stable microstructure achieved through LMD process highlight its industrial potential. This work offers a strategy for developing high‐performance materials by combining RHEA's radiation resistance with Cu's thermal conductivity for extreme environments.

Chemistry↗

DOE OSTI2026

UCB-GLOBES: An open-access mass spectral database of identified and unidentified atmospheric organic compounds

Chemical characterization of atmospheric organic aerosols using gas chromatography with 70 eV electron ionization mass spectrometry (GC/EI-MS) has been used for decades in advancing molecular marker detection and identification, though primarily through suspect screening and/or targeted analyses. To advance non-targeted analyses of environmental samples, we have catalogued approximately 27 000 mass spectra (MS) of the trimethylsilyl derivatives of semi-volatile organic aerosol (OA) analytes in the open-access University of California Berkeley Goldstein Library of Organic Biogenic Environmental Spectra (UCB-GLOBES). Analytes were observed in ambient samples from the U.S. and the Central Amazon and/or laboratory simulations of secondary OA (SOA) formation. These samples are representative of OA under urban and biomass burning influences as well as SOA derived from biogenic precursors (e.g., isoprene, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes) and biomass burning intermediates. MS are documented in UCB-GLOBES without regard to known chemical identity, annotated with extensive metadata such as sample source/experimental conditions, any structural information gained from MS analyses, and predicted chemical properties such as average carbon oxidation state and carbon number. UCB-GLOBES MS are compatible for importing into the NIST MS Search program, and we have also provided a Jupyter Notebook for MS visualization and comparisons. We demonstrate the utility of UCB-GLOBES through MS reanalyses of prior analytes observed in ambient data, finding a 20 % reduction in the number of analytes assigned to OA source categories reliant solely on time series correlation and an overall 11 % increase in new MS-based OA source categorization for the Southeast U.S. For 1513 analytes observed previously in the Central Amazon, we found 375 MS matches using UCB-GLOBES vs. 136 MS matches during prior analyses, representing a 14 % gain in newly confirmed or newly categorized OA species. While OA from laboratory oxidation experiments in UCB-GLOBES are highly diverse chemically, on average only 29 % of UCB-GLOBES MS have a mass spectral match to another MS entry in UCB-GLOBES and/or in databases of known compounds (i.e. NIST MS Database, Adams Essential Oil, MANE Flavor and Fragrance Company). This indicates that roughly 70 % of UCB-GLOBES MS are unique thus far, not observed more than once among the laboratory oxidation samples and ambient data in UCB-GLOBES MS. Further, only 18 % can be positively identified using these databases or known authentic standards. This points to a large gap between these laboratory simulations and ambient OA. Overall, the UCB-GLOBES database can be utilized for improving confidence in OA source categorization and/or identification, novel chemical marker discovery, tracking chemical diversity, de novo structure and properties prediction, and improving MS search and matching algorithms. This can ultimately inform future research priorities for the chemical characterization of atmospheric organic samples.

Mass spectrometry↗

DOE OSTI2026

Gear Test Assembly - Experimental Testing and Analysis of Gears and Bearings - FY2026

The Gear Test Assembly (GTA) is an experimental test apparatus built and installed in the Mechanisms and Engineering Test Loop (METL) at Argonne National Laboratory (ANL). While designed to accommodate a variety of components intended for use in advanced compact in-vessel transfer machine, the focus of GTA been the testing of large radial spur gears. The performance of the components used in GTA motivates the choices made in the design, components, and material choices for the forthcoming METL test articles; the Gripper Test Assembly (GrTA), and the Bearing Test Assembly (BTA). To date, GTA has completed nine experimental testing campaigns and achieved over 21 million revolutions under prototypic sodium fast reactor loads and operating conditions. This report provides an overview and results for the two most recent experiments Campaign #8 and Campaign #9. `Campaign #8 was the first campaign to make use of a set of nickel alloy radial spur gears, made from Hastelloy C-22HS, and combined with heat-treated tapered roller bearings. The bearings and torque profile used allowed Campaign #8 to be directly compared with Campaign #1 where Inconel 718 gears were used instead. Campaign #8 attained 1,058,880 shaft revolutions within 23% of the 1,314,855 revolutions achieved in Campaign #1. These results demonstrate that the heat-treated tapered roller bearings show consistent increased lifetimes, approximately three times longer than for non heat-treated taper rollers, and that the particular material of the gear does not play a substantial role in performance. Similar to Campaign #7 where bearing failure resulted in fragmentation and transport of bearing material into the gear teeth led to tooth damage in the Inconel gears, a similar process led to the damage of the Hastelloy gears. Subsequent NDE analysis showed that the damage was only limited to the tooth surface and does not extend into the gear interiors. Based on the NDE reports, the Hastelloy gears can be reconditioned and put back into service for future campaigns as was done for the Inconel gears. Reconditioned Inconel 718 gears damaged in Campaign #7 were returned to service in Campaign #9 and paired with non heat-treated tapered roller bearings. In Campaign #9 a novel set of operating conditions were implemented whereby the gears and bearings were cycled between hot, submerged refueling conditions where fuel handling operations occurred and cold, dry, and inert conditions where the sodium was drained and the vessel was allowed to cool simulating long, ex-vessel storage of the fuel handling machine. A total of eight of these operating cycles were achieved before a bearing failure occurred after the accumulation of 475,692 shaft revolutions were achieved. During Campaign #9, one of the drive motors was damaged and over the course of a 240 day standby period, the entire GTA drive system was upgraded from a 480VAC system to a 240VAC system that provided the opportunity to consolidate wall-space in the METL facility and provide more space for additional test articles being installed in the coming year. The over 475,000 shaft revolutions achieved in Campaign #9 eclipses the previous record for lifetime of non heat-treated tapered roller bearings held by Campaign #3 of 392,000 shaft revolutions. Further analysis and future campaigns hope to shed light on the cause of this approximately 17% increase in lifetime.

42 ENGINEERING↗

DOE OSTI2024

Detection and characterization of detached tidal dwarf galaxies

Tidal interactions between galaxies often give rise to tidal tails, which can harbor concentrations of stars and interstellar gas resembling dwarf galaxies. Some of these tidal dwarf galaxies (TDGs) have the potential to detach from their parent galaxies and become independent entities, but their long-term survival is uncertain. In this study, we conducted a search for detached TDGs associated with a sample of 39 interacting galaxy pairs in the local Universe using infrared, ultraviolet, and optical images. We employed IR colors and UV/optical/IR spectral energy distributions to identify potential interlopers, such as foreground stars or background quasars. Through spectroscopic observations using the Boller and Chivens spectrograph at San Pedro Mártir Observatory, we confirmed that six candidate TDGs are at the same redshift as their putative parent galaxy pairs. We identified and measured emission lines in the optical spectra and calculated nebular oxygen abundances, which range from log(O/H) = 8.10 ± 0.01 to 8.51 ± 0.02. We have serendipitously discovered an additional detached TDG candidate in Arp72 using available spectra from SDSS. Utilizing the photometric data and the CIGALE code for stellar population and dust emission fitting, we derived the stellar masses, stellar population ages, and stellar metallicities for these detached TDGs. Compared to standard mass-metallicity relations for dwarf galaxies, five of the seven candidates have higher than expected metallicities, confirming their tidal origins. One of the seven candidates remains unclear due to large uncertainties in metallicity, and another has stellar and nebular metallicities compatible with those of a preexisting dwarf galaxy. The latter object is relatively compact in the optical relative to its stellar mass, in contrast to the other candidate TDGs, which have large diameters for their stellar masses compared to most dwarf galaxies. The derived stellar population ages range from 100 Myr to 900 Myr, while the inferred stellar masses are between 2 × 10 6 M ⊙ and 8 × 10 7 M ⊙ . Four of the six TDGs are associated with the gas-rich M51-like pair Arp 72, one TDG is associated with a second M51-like pair Arp 86, and another is associated with Arp 65, an approximately equal mass pair. In spite of the relatively low stellar masses of these TDGs, they have survived for at least 100–900 Myrs, suggesting that they are stable and in dynamical equilibrium. We conclude that encounters with a relatively low-mass companion (1/10th–1/4th of the mass of the primary) can also produce long-lasting TDGs.

Astronomy & Astrophysics↗

DOE OSTI2026

Influence of microstructure and temperature on impact toughness of H13 steel produced by binder jet additive manufacturing

Binder Jet Additive Manufacturing (BJAM) is a promising manufacturing pathway to produce H13 steel dies and tooling with complex geometries for applications in high pressure aluminum die casting, hot stamping, and injection molding. While fully dense H13 coupons produced using BJAM have been subjected to detailed microstructure characterization, properties which are critical and relevant to the aforementioned applications, such as impact toughness, have not been reported. Here, this work evaluated the influence of microstructural characteristics and test temperature on the impact toughness of H13 produced by BJAM. Coupons were produced from three different powder size distributions (PSDs), with nominal powder size ranges of −22 μm, 10-32 μm, and 15-53 μm. Coupons were printed, sintered, hot isostatically pressed (HIPed), and heat treated by quenching and tempering. After HIPing, the measured porosities of the different PSDs were all less than 0.015 vol%. The −22 μm PSD BJAM material exhibited the best impact toughness of all three PSDs across the entire test temperature range from 25 to 400 °C, and also exhibited an ambient temperature impact toughness of 10.9 J at a hardness of 46 HRC, equivalent to minimum threshold requirements for premium grade H13. However, all three BJAM PSDs exhibited moderately lower impact toughness than premium grade wrought H13 from RT to 400 °C. We attribute this in part due to the very large prior-austenite grain (PAG) sizes near 400 μm and segregation from former liquid channels leading to greater amounts of carbide precipitation on PAG boundaries. Technical pathways for optimizing processing and chemistry of BJAM H13 to further improve impact toughness are discussed.

Binder jet additive manufacturing↗

DOE OSTI2024

Recent Progress in the Electroweak Structure of Light Nuclei Using Quantum Monte Carlo Methods

Nuclei will play a prominent role in searches for physics beyond the Standard Model as the active material in experiments. In order to reliably interpret new physics signals, one needs an accurate model of the underlying nuclear dynamics. In this review, we discuss recent progress made with quantum Monte Carlo approaches for calculating the electroweak structure of light nuclei. We place particular emphasis on recent β decay, muon capture, neutrinoless double β decay, and electron scattering results.

Physics↗

DOE OSTI2026

Uncovering Hidden Entanglement in Twin Beams

Proper characterization of quantum correlations in multimode optical quantum states is critical for applications in quantum information science. However, standard entanglement measurements can lead to incomplete state reconstruction and characterization. Here, we implement a resonator-based detection system that reveals entanglement between sideband modes of twin beams, achieving full tomography and retrieving often ignored quantum correlations. Unlike standard spectral measurements such as homodyne detection, resonator detection can independently address the sidebands of each beam, thereby accessing these hidden correlations. Additionally, we show how phase shifts between the carrier and the sideband modes of the involved fields redistribute information and modify the observation of entanglement for different witnesses. The ability of the resonant detection to independently address sideband modes of entangled states can contribute to enhancing the capacity for secure communication and quantum networking protocols.

Rincon Celis, Raul [University of Sao Paulo, Brazi↗

DOE OSTI2023

High‐Entropy Lithium Argyrodite Solid Electrolytes Enabling Stable All‐Solid‐State Batteries

Abstract Superionic solid electrolytes (SEs) are essential for bulk‐type solid‐state battery (SSB) applications. Multicomponent SEs are recently attracting attention for their favorable charge‐transport properties, however a thorough understanding of how configurational entropy (ΔS conf ) affects ionic conductivity is lacking. Here, we successfully synthesized a series of halogen‐rich lithium argyrodites with the general formula Li 5.5 PS 4.5 Cl x Br 1.5‐x (0≤x≤1.5). Using neutron powder diffraction and 31 P magic‐angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, the S 2− /Cl − /Br − occupancy on the anion sublattice was quantitatively analyzed. We show that disorder positively affects Li‐ion dynamics, leading to a room‐temperature ionic conductivity of 22.7 mS cm −1 (9.6 mS cm −1 in cold‐pressed state) for Li 5.5 PS 4.5 Cl 0.8 Br 0.7 (ΔS conf =1.98R). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first experimental evidence that configurational entropy of the anion sublattice correlates with ion mobility. Our results indicate the possibility of improving ionic conductivity in ceramic ion conductors by tailoring the degree of compositional complexity. Moreover, the Li 5.5 PS 4.5 Cl 0.8 Br 0.7 SE allowed for stable cycling of single‐crystal LiNi 0.9 Co 0.06 Mn 0.04 O 2 (s‐NCM90) composite cathodes in SSB cells, emphasizing that dual‐substituted lithium argyrodites hold great promise in enabling high‐performance electrochemical energy storage.

Chemistry↗

DOE OSTI2026

Feedback, physics, and forecasts: The emerging paradigm of machine learning-driven battery research

Machine learning (ML) is reshaping how we understand, predict, and optimize electrochemical systems. In batteries, ML accelerates discovery across chemistry, design, and operation by transforming massive experimental and simulated datasets into predictive, interpretable models. This review consolidates a decade of progress in ML-driven battery innovation, from early-cycle feature extraction to operando image analysis and physics-informed modeling. We categorize approaches by data domain and physical fidelity, emphasizing interpretable ML for diagnostics, reinforcement learning for control, and multi-objective optimization for lifetime extension strategies. Additionally, we demonstrate how integrated models accelerate discovery, reduce testing time, and guide sustainable design. Economic analyses furthermore illustrate how these advances can lower cost per cycle and improve circularity. Together, these developments chart a path toward self-optimizing, sustainable battery technologies.

artificial intelligence↗

DOE OSTI2026

Sierra/SD - Users Manual - 5.32

Sierra/SD provides a massively parallel implementation of structural dynamics finite element analysis, required for high-fidelity, validated models used in modal, vibration, static and shock analysis. This document provides a user's guide to the input for Sierra/SD. Details of input specifications for the different solution types, output options, element types and parameters are included.

Beale, Dagny Marie [Sandia National Laboratories (↗

DOE OSTI2026

Scaling Demand Flexibility: Building on 30 Years of Energy Efficiency Success

With electricity consumption across the United States (US) and Canada anticipated to grow, energy efficiency program administrators have a key role to play in helping to ensure energy affordability and reliability in support of the broader economic systems utilities and grid support. Connected, demand side load balancing solutions, such as load shifting heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems and managed charging for electric vehicles (EVs), can dynamically manage energy, allowing for more volumetric electricity consumption without incurring the expense of upgraded transmission and distribution capabilities. When combined, or aggregated, many small loads can be managed to have meaningful impact on energy demand on the grid. Utilities and their partners have an opportunity to leverage decades of experience and the infrastructure needed to assess, design, implement, and measure programs to scale up the adoption of equipment with built-in load flexibility capabilities. Current efforts among a wide variety of electricity system service providers, utilities, standards agencies, regulators, national labs and private industry stakeholders aim to identify common standards, metrics, and methodologies for valuing grid services offered by demand side equipment. By combining those efforts with decades of proven energy efficiency resources, utilities are poised to effectuate a scaling up of equipment with energy management capabilities installed in homes and businesses across the US and Canada. This paper will provide an overview of how utilities are approaching this era of load growth and new peak demands across the United States and Canada. It will highlight the specific strategies that program administrators are employing to advance market transformation for grid-enabled products and devices that have the greatest potential to reduce energy use and increase load flexibility.

Grant, Peter↗

DOE OSTI2026

Adapter Signaling Evaluations on EVs [Slides]

In case J3400 and J3400/1 define a basic analog signaling approach for DC charging adapters to communicate over-temperature events to both the EV and EVSE. They also require the EV to implement mitigation and corrective actions in cases where the EVSE does not respond to adapter thermal signals. In this study, multiple production vehicles were evaluated for responsiveness to assess field readiness and ensure consistent performance in accordance with the SAE J1772, J3400 and J3400/1 standards. A series of test cases were developed and executed across different vehicles, using an adapter thermal breakout fixture designed by NLR for evaluations. The results revealed notable variations in behavior: some vehicles expected to comply with J1772 were found to be non-responsive under certain conditions. Additionally, while some EV OEMs appear to align with the J3400 standard, discrepancies exist due to its evolving nature, resulting in inconsistent implementation of the latest requirements. These findings highlight the need for alignment within standards organizations to ensure consistent interpretation, encourage compliance, and reduce potential confusion across implementations.

33 ADVANCED PROPULSION SYSTEMS↗

DOE OSTI2026

Cobalt-free and high-rate stable 5V lithium nickel manganese oxide spinel cathodes enabled via surface oxygen vacancies

Spinel LiNi 0.5 Mn 1.5 O 4 offers both the high-rate, low-cost and safety advantages of LiFePO 4 and the high energy density of LiNiₓMnᵧCo₁₋ₓ₋ᵧO₂ and LiNiₓCoᵧAlzO₂ cathodes. However, the large operating voltage of these materials induces electrolyte oxidation, which degrades the interface and drives Mn dissolution. These reactions are further exacerbated at high rates due to temperature rise. In this study, we discover that ammoniacal treatment followed by annealing introduces a high density of oxygen vacancies in the “near-surface region” of LiNi 0.5 Mn 1.5 O 4 particles. These vacancies release electrons changing the oxidation state of Mn and suppressing its tendency to oxidize the electrolyte. Further, these vacancies enhance the electrode’s electronic conductivity (by ∼3-fold) and Li + diffusivity (by ∼2-fold) greatly improving charge transport, especially when operated at high rates. This results in an across-the-board improvement in self-discharge, specific capacity, energy density, rate capability, coulombic efficiency and cycling stability. When cycled at ∼200 mA g −1 , the capacity fade averaged over 3000 cycles for the surface vacancy-enriched material is ∼0.0167% per cycle compared to an order of magnitude higher fade rate for the baseline material. In conclusion, these findings reveal the potential of targeted surface oxygen vacancy doping to develop cobalt-free and high energy density cathodes that tolerate fast charging and deliver improved cycle life.

Cobalt-free cathodes↗

DOE OSTI2026

Robustness of inertial fusion energy relevant implosions to low-mode asymmetries

Inertial confinement fusion implosions for power production need to be robust. Degradation sources need to be understood and considered for an economic power plant. In this work, the impact of low-mode asymmetries on yield is studied using 2D radiation hydrodynamics simulations for inertial fusion energy relevant implosions. First, a high-gain indirectly driven capsule design is developed. This design is subsequently degraded with low-mode drive asymmetries. The results show that yield is constant with increasing amounts of asymmetry until a cliff is reached where the yield quickly drops below ignition. Robustness arises because the degraded hotspot still has enough time to get to ignition before capsule decompression. This robustness occurs even though the asymmetry couples less energy to the hotspot and causes decompression to occur sooner. The robustness is linked to the generalized Lawson parameter, χ⁠. The value of χ steadily decreases with increasing asymmetry. Once χ is close to one, the hotspot is no longer able to ignite before the capsule decompresses. A simple piston model is used to predict where the robustness cliff is for any design. The trade-off between yield and robustness is also demonstrated.

Physics - Plasma physics↗

DOE OSTI2025

pi-Extended Porphyrins: The Impact of Aromatic Heterocycles on the Properties of the Largely pi-Extended Structures (Final Report_UNT_SC0016766)

Largely π-extended carbon-rich materials represent fascinating yet challenging frontiers in chemistry and materials science as it offers numerous opportunities in molecular electronics. pi-Extended porphyrins possess unique set of electronic and photophysical properties and are very attractive for a wide range of applications. However, the synthesis and functionalization of pi-extended porphyrins had been very challenging. To explore and expand this intriguing research field, it is essential to develop synthetic tools to make them accessible. Funded by the Department of Energy Basic Energy Science, my laboratory addressed these synthetic challenges by developing concise and versatile methods for pi-extended porphyrins. Significant progress has been made in multiple directions, including fusing Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH), aromatic heterocycles, antiaromatic component, and cross-conjugated component to porphyrins as well as push-pull porphyrins. The availability of these methods has made it possible to rationally design and synthesize functionalized pi-extended porphyrins. Unprecedented electronic and photophysical properties have been discovered for these pi-extended porphyrins.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗

DOE OSTI2026

Fingerprinting Superconductors by Disentangling Andreev and Quasiparticle Currents Across Tunable Tunnel Junctions

Tunneling Andreev reflection (TAR) spectroscopy provides a new approach to identify superconducting pairing symmetry at the atomic scale. Using atomistic superconducting transport simulations, we reveal the mechanism by which TAR can distinguish between pairing symmetries, which is complementary to traditional conductance-based techniques. In particular, owing to the additivity of the excess tunneling decay rate, the TAR spectrum is a weighted average of the contributions from quasiparticle currents, Andreev reflection, and higher-order scattering processes, and their relative weights depend on both the superconducting order parameter and the coupling strength. Within the local tunneling model, TAR dominates mid-gap conductance for s-wave superconductors, is suppressed for d-wave, and coexists with quasiparticle tunneling in sign-changing symmetries if the expectation value for the superconducting gap remains finite. Meanwhile, higher-order processes generally enhance the TAR signal when GN exceeds approximately 0.1G0. As a result, TAR provides a rich spectral fingerprint of the underlying pairing symmetry and electronic structure, enabling atomically resolved identification of unconventional superconducting states.

Maksymovych, Petro [Clemson University]↗

DOE OSTI2026

Automated scanning probe microscopy of combinatorial ferroelectric libraries: Gaussian-process-guided exploration and noise-aware experiment planning

Combinatorial materials libraries provide an efficient route for mapping composition–property relationships, but their broader impact depends on rapid, quantitative, and functionally relevant characterization. Scanning Probe Microscopy (SPM), including piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM), offers significant potential for quantitative, functionally relevant combi-library readouts. Here, we implement a fully automated SPM workflow for ferroelectric combinatorial libraries and benchmark Gaussian-process-based Bayesian optimization strategies for autonomous experiment planning. The workflow integrates automated probe motion, contact optimization, imaging, and dual amplitude resonance tracking-PFM spectroscopy, and uses scalarized spectroscopic observables to guide subsequent measurements. Stage motion, probe engagement, in-contact tuning, imaging, spectroscopy, and the choice of the next measurement location all proceed without human input. We demonstrate the approach on Sm-doped BiFeO 3 and Zn x Mg 1−x O libraries. By comparing vanilla Bayesian optimization with a measured-noise variant, we show that explicit treatment of local reproducibility can improve modeling of composition-dependent response when the measured variance is physically meaningful, but can also reduce robustness when variability is dominated by outliers or topographic artifacts. Furthermore, these results establish automated SPM as a bridge between combinatorial synthesis and quantitative functional characterization.

Liu, Yu [University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN (U↗