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NASA NTRS2026

Understanding and Controlling Hybrid Electric Gas Turbine Engine Transient Dynamics

The electrification of the gas turbine engine is known to increase the flexibility of aircraft architectures by enabling the generation of electrical power to distribute to other electrically based, thrust producing subsystems. It also has potential for direct performance benefits in the gas turbine engine itself, both at steady state and dynamically. Although the design focus of the gas turbine engine performance is primarily at steady state, it is often the instabilities occurring during transients that cause disequilibrium and constrain performance improvements. Instabilities arise due to the disequilibrium of the energy storage mechanisms within the traditional engine system and likewise for the electrified engine system. The primary energy storage mechanisms in the traditional system are the rotational inertia, gas path volumes, the thermal masses that make up the mechanical structure, and now, the electrical power system will provide additional contributions. Understanding the effect each of these energy storage mechanisms has on the others and controlling them appropriately allows for the suppression of state changes within the turbomachinery components to the degree that the components remain near steady state, thus reducing the disequilibrium within the system. The ability to tightly regulate the state changes of turbomachinery components, such as the compressor, minimizes the excursion of the compressor operating point from the operating line (operability), allowing for higher performing, more efficient compressor designs by decreasing the amount of stall margin needed for safe engine power level changes. Preliminary studies with the electrification of the turbine engine have shown that this is possible, and this concept can lead to design trades benefitting engine performance, weight, and volume. This paper explores in detail the energy storage mechanisms and control approaches for coordinating their state changes, and ultimately proposes that a higher performing, more efficient compressor design can result.

transient dynamics↗

NASA NTRS1986

The NASA Aerospace Battery Safety Handbook

This handbook has been written for the purpose of acquainting those involved with batteries with the information necessary for the safe handling, storage, and disposal of these energy storage devices. Included in the document is a discussion of the cell and battery design considerations and the role of the components within a cell. The cell and battery hazards are related to user- and/or manufacturer-induced causes. The Johnson Space Center (JSC) Payload Safety Guidelines for battery use in Shuttle applications are also provided. The electrochemical systems are divided into zinc anode and lithium anode primaries, secondary cells, and fuel cells. Each system is briefly described, typical applications are given, advantages and disadvantages are tabulated, and most importantly, safety hazards associated with its use are given.

Halpert, Gerald↗

NASA NTRS1991

Preparation of the Ice Certification of the Dornier 328 Regional Airliner By Numerical Simulation and By Ground Test

The Dornier 328, a new regional airliner, is to be qualified to FAR25/JAR25 requirements for operation into known icing conditions. All lifting surfaces are pneumatically deiced. Impingement limits were determined using a validated computational fluid dynamic (CFD) code. Wind tunnel tests with a model of the whole aircraft and the isolated empennage equipped with artificial ice shapes showed a degradation of handling characteristics due to ice accretion. Extensive two and three dimensional CFD calculations evaluated ice accretion at the deflection elevator horn. Icing tunnel tests were performed with a model of the horizontal tail with icing similitude fulfilled. The Dornier Do328 powerplant air induction system has successfully completed a program of icing tests in support of aircraft certification for operation into known icing conditions. Potential flight icing conditions were extensively analyzed using a CFD potential flow code and 3-D particle tracking routine to identify critical flight icing conditions. The tunnel test program verified the analytically predicted critical ice accretion surfaces of the air induction system, the adequacy of the ice protection provisions and demonstrated compliance with the applicable (JAR25) regulatory material.

D Welte↗

NASA NTRS1991

Effects of Adverse Weather on Aerodynamics [Les Effets des Conditions Météorologiques Adverses sur I'Aérodynamique]

The 19 technical papers developed for the AGARD Fluid Dynamics Panel (FDP) Specialists' Meeting on "Effects of Adverse Weather on Aerodynamics" held from 28th April—i May 1991 in Toulouse, France are documented in this Conference Proceedings. In addition, introductory material from the Program Chairman and the results of the Round Table Discussion held after the meeting are also included. The FDP organized this meeting to provide a timely review of the progress being made in advancing the state-of-the-art of predicting, simulating, and measuring the effects of icing, anti-icing fluids, and various forms of precipitation on the aerodynamic characteristics of flight vehicles. Topics included results from both theoretical and experimental programs and material related to procedures and regulations for certification and operation. International participation for the meeting included authors from eight nations and representatives from most of the 16 NATO nations.

Precipitation - meteorology↗

NASA NTRS2002

Proceedings of the 36th Aerospace Mechanisms Symposium

The Aerospace Mechanisms Symposium (AMS) provides a unique forum for those active in the design, production, and use of aerospace mechanisms. A major focus is the reporting of problems and solutions associated with the development and flight certification of new mechanisms. Organized by the Mechanisms Education Association, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and Lockheed Martin Space Systems Company (LMSSC) share the responsibility for hosting the AMS. Now in its 36th year, the AMS continues to be well attended, attracting participants from both the United States and abroad. The 36th AMS, hosted by the Glenn Research Center (GRC) in Cleveland, Ohio, was held May 15, 16, and 17, 2002. During these three days, 32 papers were presented. Topics included deployment mechanisms, tribology, actuators, pointing and optical mechanisms, International Space Station mechanisms, release mechanisms, and test equipment. Hardware displays during the supplier exhibit gave attendees an opportunity to meet with developers of current and future mechanism components.

Boesiger, Edward A.↗

NASA NTRS2026

Hidden in Plain Sight: A New Main Belt Population of Aqueously Altered and Thermally Metamorphosed Asteroids

C-complex low albedo asteroids are understood to be related to aqueously altered carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. However, in recent years, a new subgroup of aqueously altered meteorites that have experienced significant heating after their initial interactions with water has been extensively studied. It remains unclear where the aqueously altered and heated parent bodies are located in the asteroid belt. To address this question, we reanalyzed the original dataset that defined the Bus-DeMeo spectral taxonomy of asteroids (DeMeo et al., 2009) using a machine learning approach trained with near-infrared archival meteorite spectra. Results show that ~50% of the C-complex asteroids first identified in the Bus-DeMeo asteroid spectral taxonomy are aqueously altered and heated. Though Ryugu has been shown to also have experienced both of these processes, this is the first evidence of a population of aqueously altered and thermally metamorphosed asteroids in the Main Asteroid Belt. Based on the expected velocity and frequency of impacts in the main belt population, we conclude that impacts are the most likely heat source driving thermal metamorphism we identify. Moreover, these aqueously altered and thermally metamorphosed asteroids may represent a primordial population of low-albedo material that formed in situ in the inner solar system. If these asteroids formed in place, rather than being brought in from the outer solar system during giant planet migration, they would have experienced more frequent and higher velocity impacts, resulting in their distinct mineralogy.

Main Belt asteroids↗

NASA NTRS1993

Failure Modes of Reduced-Order Orbit Determination Filters and Their Remedies

Ways in which failure can occur in reduced-order, orbit determination filter, error covariance calculations are discussed. In the context of this article, reduced-order filters denote nonoptimal filters which include fixed levels of uncertainty in some parameters of the measurement models or in the spacecraft dynamical model which are not explicitly estimated in the filter equations. Failure is defined as an increase in the orbit determination covariance with the addition of data or as an unreasonable growth in the covariance with time, i.e., nonasymptotic behavior of the covariance. Some simple, known cases of failure are discussed along with their traditional remedies. In addition, more modern remedies are discussed which are currently under development at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. The article first describes the known problems of reduced-order filters when they are employed for orbit determination, and their traditional remedies. Then, having defined these, the relevancy and desirability of the more modern remedies are made apparent.

D J Scheeres↗

NASA NTRS1994

Analysis of the Erosion of Cubic Centered and Face Centered Metallic Materials [Analyse de L'erosion de Matereaux Metalliques de Structures Cubiques Centree et Face Centree]

A generalized law of erosion, in nondimensional form, is proposed. The aforementioned explicitly gives an account of the nature and the microstructure of the material impacted, the angle of impact of the particles, and their hardness. The erosion behavior of various steels, pig iron, and cast iron is examined as well as the behavior of new ordered intermetallic materials, Fe-25% Al-(Zr, Cr, B). The concern of such alloys in an erosion-corrosion environment is shown. --- Une loi généralisée d'usure par érosion, sous forme non dimensionnelle, est proposée. Celle-ci rend compte explicitement de la nature et de la microstructure du matériau impacté, de l'angle d'impact des particules, de leur acuité at de leur durete. Le comportement à l'érosion de divers aciers et fontes est examiné ainsi que la tenue de nouveaux matériaux intermétalliques ordonnés Fe-25% Al - (Zr, Cr, B). L'interet de tels alliages dans des environnements agressifs du type érosion-corrosion est montré. Mots clés: usure, érosion, modèle, matériaux métalliques, intermétalliques Fe-Al.

A Magnée↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Practical Battery Thermal Modeling Techniques

Lithium-ion batteries are thermo-electrochemical devices, whereby nearly every facet of their functionality and performance are thermally driven. As a result, it is important to have thermal modeling techniques that effectively capture the intricacies of both the electrochemical nature of the battery and also the complex thermal network that typically results from the design of the battery thermal management system. Here we present a thermal modeling workflow and a set of general assumptions for how to construct a thermal model of a Li-ion battery pack. We use a 14-cell bank of 18650-format Li-ion cells, loosely based on a proposed alternative battery design for Orion, as the example. Although the workflow is performed with Thermal Desktop and related utilities, the focus of this presentation is less about software specific techniques, but rather is focused on the assumptions and conditions that should be used in a model (regardless of the tool used to build the model). Example cases and results will be presented for charge, discharge, and thermal runaway.

lithium-ion battery↗

NASA NTRS2026

Experimental Study of Aeropropulsive Interactions for Electric Ducted Fans on a Wing

The Adaptable Distributed Electric Propulsion Testbed (ADEPT)Wing was tested in the NASA Langley 12-Foot Low-Speed Tunnel to investigate electric propulsion technologies for commercial transport aircraft. The purpose of the test was to study the aeropropulsive effects across angle of attack and fan speed variations for several propulsor placements and array sizes, and to investigate how distributed electric propulsion (DEP) can be leveraged for augmented lift and vehicle control. Six electric ducted fan (EDF) array placements were tested by positioning the fans along the leading and trailing edges on the top and bottom surfaces, as well as centered on the chord line in front of and behind the wing. Each fan placement configuration was tested with an array of one, three, and five EDFs to characterize an aeropropulsive extrapolation effect, and the bare wing was tested separately to provide baseline aerodynamic measurements. The results compare the longitudinal forces and moments for each configuration by analyzing the combined aeropropulsive interaction effects, and offer valuable insight into considerations for fan placement along a wing to enable the benefits of DEP integration.

Rose Weinstein↗

NASA NTRS2026

Ground-Based Microwave Measurements of ClO and O3 Over Scott Base, Antarctica

We present measurements from a new microwave instrument that has been deployed at Scott Base, Antarctica, primarily to measure ClO. The new instrument allows for the extension of the time series of lower stratospheric ClO measurements begun in 1996 at this site, while some of the technical improvements offer the possibility of making additional measurements. We show measurements of ClO and O 3 in both the upper and lower stratosphere near both the fall and spring equinox and document the diurnal variations of these measurements throughout the season. The ground-based measurements are compared with Aura Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) measurements, which are available twice per day, and with a NASA Goddard 2D model (GSFC2D) simulation. We show that, in agreement with the GSFC2D model diurnal variations, upper stratospheric ClO mixing ratios gradually increase throughout the daylight hours, while in the lower stratospheric austral spring, when heterogeneous chemistry associated with polar stratospheric clouds occurs, daily maximum ClO mixing ratios of near 2 ppbv occur near noon. We also show measurements of stratospheric O 3 , primarily in the upper stratosphere, which, while exhibiting a low bias of ∼15%–20% relative to Aura MLS, show temporal variations in good agreement with MLS.

stratospheric ozone↗

NASA NTRS1992

Long Duration Exposure Facility experiment M0003 deintegration observation database

The four trays of the M0003 materials experiment on LDEF contained 1274 samples from 19 subexperiments. The complete sample complement represented a broad range of materials, including thin film optical coatings, paints, polymer sheets and tapes, adhesives, and composites, for use in various spacecraft applications including thermal control, structures, optics, and solar power. Since some subexperiments included duplicate samples exposed on the leading and trailing edge trays, for 9 week, 19 week, 40 week, and 68 month durations on both the leading and trailing edges, comparisons provided a valuable time history of degradation. During the deintegration of the subexperiments from the M0003 trays, each sample was examined using bright field, dark field, and Normarski light microscopy techniques. Over 3,000 color macrographs and photomicrographs were made of the condition of M0003 trays and the individual samples. Records of the condition of the samples, photographic records, and all available references of publications on postflight analyses on each sample were collected in a database. The photographs provide a visual comparison of the response of materials common to various subexperiments in different LDEF environments. Aerospace Corporation is distributing the database records and photographs and written records on materials of interest from the database is given in this presentation.

S. R. Gyetvay↗

NASA NTRS2003

Global Characterization of Polygonally Fractured Terrain on Venus and Implications for a Climate Change Origin

On Earth, polygonal fractures with spacings of 1-100 cm form in lava flows that cool slowly under isotropic stress conditions. On Venus, polygonal fractures are observed with typical fracture spacings of 1-2 km, covering regions 10s to 100s of km across. These features have been proposed to form via cooling of lava flows or above subsurface intrusions, or due to surface cooling caused by climate change. A watershed algorithm was modified to search the entire Magellan image database autonomously for terrains with polygonal fractures. Here we characterize the 204 polygon terrains found using this method (including over 170 newly identified regions) with respect to size, morphology, stratigraphy, and geologic setting. These results are used to examine different models of origin.

S. E. Smrekar↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Physics-Guided Deep Learning for Complex System Health Management and Decision Making

The landscape of complex engineered systems is rapidly evolving, from smart manufacturing facilities to next-generation transportation vehicles. As these systems become increasingly sophisticated and interconnected, the need for advanced health management systems grows ever more critical. These systems must go beyond simple monitoring, actively predicting potential failures before they occur. This paradigm shift from fixed maintenance schedules to condition-based predictions is key to optimizing system performance, enhancing safety, and paving the way for autonomous decision-making across various industries. Whether in industrial processes, energy systems, or advanced transportation, the ability to anticipate and prevent failures is becoming a cornerstone of operational excellence. To accurately predict the future health of any complex system, knowledge of its current health state and future operational conditions is essential. Recent advancements in data-driven algorithms have generated growing interest in artificial intelligence for industrial applications. However, the limitations of pure data-driven methods, particularly in industries where data acquisition is costly and limited, have become apparent. This has led to a focus on blending physics with data-driven algorithms, mitigating the drawbacks of both approaches while emphasizing their respective advantages. This research proposes a novel framework for integrating physics-based performance models with deep learning algorithms for the prognostics of complex safety-critical systems. In this approach, physics-based models serve as a blueprint, capturing fundamental system behaviors, while deep learning algorithms, leveraging real-world sensor data, fill in gaps and identify subtle patterns indicative of potential problems. This hybrid methodology, utilizing techniques such as Physics-Informed Neural Networks (PINNs), offers a powerful solution for predicting system health. By fusing domain knowledge with data-driven insights, this approach promises more accurate, adaptable, and reliable models for health prediction. The resulting framework is versatile, applicable across various sectors including aerospace, manufacturing, and energy systems, ultimately contributing to safer, more efficient operations in our increasingly complex technological landscape.

Diagnostics↗

NASA NTRS2018

GOES-R Lithium-Ion Battery Life Test & Workhorse Battery Performance

The GOES R series lithium-ion battery life test results are presented for the next-generation GOES R series weather satellites. Lockheed Martin is under contract to NASA Goddard to build and deliver four GOES-R series satellites which are operated by NOAA. In addition, Lockheed Martin is required to build a GOES R series flight battery to flight drawings and processes and perform an accelerated geosynchronous earth-orbiting (GEO) life test consisting of 30 real-time eclipse seasons and 30 accelerated solstice seasons. The GOES R series batteries are designed and built by Saft America, Inc. Space and Defense Division in Cockeysville, MD with Saft VL48E cells. The GOES R series life test battery which has been built to flight drawings and processes has undergone 21 seasons of accelerated GEO testing (which is equivalent to over 10 years on-orbit). This presentation includes a description of the life test and latest test results through season 20. The life test battery capacity measurements prior to cycling and after seasons 4, 10, and 20 which have shown little or no change are summarized. In addition, the performance of the GOES R series workhorse batteries performance are presented. These GOES R series workhorse batteries are used during spacecraft testing and have shown no discernable capacity loss after 7 years of mostly ambient operation and cold storage since activation. An overview of the electrical power subsystem and battery charge is, also, addressed.

Tucker, Jon↗

NASA NTRS1991

Nickel hydrogen battery expert system

The Hubble Telescope Battery Testbed at MSFC uses the Nickel Cadmium (NiCd) Battery Expert System (NICBES-2) which supports the evaluation of performance of Hubble Telescope spacecraft batteries and provides alarm diagnosis and action advice. NICBES-2 provides a reasoning system along with a battery domain knowledge base to achieve this battery health management function. An effort is summarized which was used to modify NICBES-2 to accommodate Nickel Hydrogen (NiH2) battery environment now in MSFC testbed. The NICBES-2 is implemented on a Sun Microsystem and is written in SunOS C and Quintus Prolog. The system now operates in a multitasking environment. NICBES-2 spawns three processes: serial port process (SPP); data handler process (DHP); and the expert system process (ESP) in order to process the telemetry data and provide the status and action advice. NICBES-2 performs orbit data gathering, data evaluation, alarm diagnosis and action advice and status and history display functions. The adaptation of NICBES-2 to work with NiH2 battery environment required modification to all of the three component processes.

Shiva, Sajjan G.↗

NASA NTRS1993

Radio Metric Errors Due to Mismatch and Offset Between a DSN Antenna Beam and the Beam of a Troposphere Calibration Instrument

Two components of the error of a troposphere calibration measurement were quantified by theoretical calculations. The first component is a beam mismatch error, which occurs when the calibration instrument senses a conical volume different from the cylindrical volume sampled by a Deep Space Network (DSN) antenna. The second component is a beam offset error, which occurs if the calibration instrument is not mounted on the axis of the DSN antenna. These two error sources were calculated for both delay (e.g., VLBI) and delay rate (e.g., Doppler) measurements. The beam mismatch error for both delay and delay rate drops rapidly as the beamwidth of the troposphere calibration instrument (e.g., a water vapor radiometer or an infrared Fourier transform spectrometer) is reduced. At a 10-deg elevation angle, the instantaneous beam mismatch error is 1.0 mm for a 6-deg beamwidth and 0.09 mm for a 0.5-deg beam (these are the full angular widths of a circular beam with uniform gain out to a sharp cutoff). Time averaging for 60-100 sec will reduce these errors by factors of 1.2-2.2. At a 20-deg elevation angle, the lower limit for current Doppler observations, the beam-mismatch delay rate error is an Allan standard deviation over 100 sec of 1.1 x 10 -14 with a 4-deg beam and 1.3 x 10 -15 for a 0.5-deg beam. A 50-m beam offset would result in a fairly modest (compared to other expected error sources) delay error (less than or equal to 0.3 mm for 60-sec integrations at any elevation angle is greater than or equal to 6 deg). However, the same offset would cause a large error in delay rate measurements (e.g., an Allan standard deviation of 1.2 x 10 -14 over 100 sec at a 20-deg elevation angle), which would dominate over other known error sources if the beamwidth is 2 deg or smaller. An on-axis location is essential for accurate troposphere calibration of delay rate measurements. A half-power beamwidth (for a beam with a tapered gain profile) of 1.2 deg or smaller is desired for calibration of all types of radio metrics. A water-vapor radiometer calibration beam of this size with very low sidelobes would require a clear aperture antenna with a diameter of at least 1.5 m if the primary water vapor sensing channel were in the 20-22 GHz range.

R P Linfield↗

NASA NTRSDate not supplied

In-Situ Scanning Electron Microscope Experiments for Microscale Mechanical Testing and Validated Modeling of Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastics

A novel, in-situ, scanning electron microscope (SEM) mechanical testing capability for materials at the microscale which provides experimental validation to a machine learning (ML) toolset for full-field validation of physics-based micromechanics models is being developed by researchers at NASA Glenn Research Center. These are enabling technologies for the integration of multiscale digital twins for materials into system level models which will result in the improved performance, material discovery, reduced production cost and time, rapid characterization, and prognostic structural health monitoring (SHM) for materials and structures for extreme environments in support of NASA space exploration missions. In order to bridge the material structure-to-system gap for digital twins, physics-based models must be experimentally validated at multiple length scales. Seminal microscale experiments, conducted at the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), were limited to transverse compression of single-layer, unidirectional thermoset polymer matrix composite (PMC) micropillar specimens [1]. The early phases of the current project followed those initial results and setup to reproduce the compression testing of PMC material on the custom-built piezoelectric actuated micromechanical testing rig built by MicroTesting Solutions LLC. In this work, samples of thermoplastic PMC material were first machined into 3 mm cubes, and then further machining and final milling was done using a Focused Ion Beam (FIB). The initial experiment was done on a pillar roughly 20 µm x 20 µm x 40 µm tall. Additional pillars were milled with final sizes ranging from 20 µm x 20 µm x 40 µm tall to 40 µm x 40 µm x 65 µm tall. A speckle pattern for in-situ full-field measurements using Digital Image Correlation (DIC) was applied with platinum, which was coated on the surface, and then the FIB was used to mill away some of the coating to produce an irregular pattern of Pt on the pillar surface. The samples were loaded into the custom testing rig and placed into the SEM and loaded under compression until failure. Images were collected in the SEM during testing. Post-processing of the images was conducted using DIC to obtain full-field displacement and strain measurements elucidating the role of the matrix as well as fiber-fiber interaction at the microscale within the composite subjected to compression loading well into the non-linear regime of the material. Moreover, the evolution of fiber-matrix debonding and matrix cracking is observed in-situ at the microscale. This data, along with images segmented with a newly developed ML toolset [2], was used to create and validate physics-based micromechanics models. An image of the failed micropillar is shown in Figure 1. The techniques developed in the initial compression experiment was tailored to the validation needs of the models and expanded to include different sized samples as well as possibly tension and fatigue.

Laura Wilson↗