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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 109 records · Page 6
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2025

Uranyl fluorescence in acidic solution: quenching effects by tetramethylammonium (TMA + )

The quenching of uranyl luminescence by various cation species was studied in aqueous media at low pH. Solutions with different nitrate salts, held at constant uranyl nitrate, nitric acid, and ion concentration, were tested to examine the quenching effects of the cations from the nitrate salts. Alkali metal (Li + , Na + , Rb + ) and quaternary ammonium cations (NH 4 + ), (CH 3 ) 4 N + (TMA + ), (C 2 H 5 ) 4 N + (TEA + ) were investigated. Solutions containing TMA + reduced the lifetime of uranyl fluorescence significantly more than the other cations. Uranyl emission spectra also showed that TMA + increased the complex formation between uranyl and nitrate ions. Fluorescence decay lifetime measurements for most solutions yielded values between 1.4–1.9 μs at 20 °C, while 1.8 M TMA + reduced the lifetime of uranyl fluorescence to 0.6 μs. Decay rate versus concentration data (Stern–Volmer plots) indicated a dynamic quenching process with increasing fluorescence decay rates at higher cation concentrations for Li + , TMA + , and TEA + . The temperature dependencies of the decay rates and the kinetics in D 2 O were also examined.

Persinger, Thomas D. [Argonne National Laboratory ↗
DOE OSTI2025

Hidden domain boundary dynamics toward crystalline perfection

A central paradigm of nonequilibrium physics concerns the dynamics of heterogeneity and disorder, impacting processes ranging from the behavior of glasses to the emergent functionality of active matter. Understanding these complex mesoscopic systems requires probing the microscopic trajectories associated with irreversible processes, the role of fluctuations and entropy growth, and the timescales on which nonequilibrium responses are ultimately maintained. Approaches that illuminate these processes in model systems may enable a more general understanding of other heterogeneous nonequilibrium phenomena, and potentially define ultimate speed and energy cost limits for information processing technologies. Here, we apply ultrafast single-shot X-ray photon correlation spectroscopy to resolve the nonequilibrium, heterogeneous, and irreversible mesoscale dynamics during a light-induced phase transition in a (PbTiO 3 ) 16 /(SrTiO 3 ) 16 superlattice. Such ferroelectric superlattice systems are a useful platform to study phase transitions and topological dynamics due to their high degree of tunability. This provides an approach for capturing the nucleation of the light-induced phase, the formation of transient mesoscale defects at the boundaries of the nuclei, and the eventual annihilation of these defects, even in systems with complex polarization topologies. We identify a nonequilibrium correlation response spanning >10 orders of magnitude in timescales, with multistep behavior similar to the plateaus observed in supercooled liquids and glasses. We further show how the observed time-dependent long-time correlations can be understood in terms of stochastic and non-Markovian dynamics of domain walls, encoded in waiting-time distributions with power-law tails. This work defines possibilities for probing the nonequilibrium and correlated dynamics of disordered and heterogeneous media.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Tuning Anisotropic Optical Properties of Inorganic and Hybrid Organic–Inorganic MXenes via Topochemical Surface Modification

Surface groups are central to the properties of MXenes, yet their role in optical anisotropy remains largely unexplored. Here, we use a topochemical route to synthesize single crystals of stacked Ti 3 C 2 Cl 2 and hybrid organic–inorganic MXenes (h-MXenes) with lateral sizes of 38–75 μm, rotational registry, and tunable interlayer spacing. Solid-state NMR spectroscopy shows that topochemical substitution generates mixed amido, imido, and hydride surface motifs, which modify the electronic structure of the Ti 3 C 2 inorganic core. Imaging spectroscopic ellipsometry with micron-scale spatial resolution enables reconstruction of the complex dielectric tensor of individual multilayer crystals. Ti 3 C 2 Cl 2 exhibits a type-II hyperbolicity above 930 nm, whereas h-MXenes do not display hyperbolicity within the measured 300–1700 nm window, instead showing reduced in-plane conductivity, suppressed out-of-plane light absorption, and a chain-length-dependent blue shift of a near-infrared absorption feature. These results demonstrate topochemical surface modification as a direct handle for engineering MXenes as surface-programmable optical media.

Hybrid materials↗
DOE OSTI2024

Photophysics and Carrier Dynamics of Lasing in Quasi-2D Lead Halide Perovskites

Quasi-2D perovskites have recently been extensively studied due to their narrow-bandwidth-tunable emission, solution processability, and applicability as optical gain media. Quasi-2D perovskites are composed of inorganic perovskite crystal layers encapsulated with a bulky organic ligand such as phenylethylammonium, endowing the perovskite with a quantum-well structure and improved stability. In this article, we explore the photophysics of a quasi-2D metal halide perovskite as a promising light-harvesting and emitting medium. We find it exhibits high optical absorption (~10 5 cm -1 ) and an optically pumped amplified spontaneous emission threshold at 623 μJ/cm 2 . We study charge transfer processes in the complex mixed quantum wells of these perovskites through transient absorption and time-resolved photoluminescence measurements and develop a phenomenological model that incorporates optical gain for lasing. Further, while both free carriers and excitons are observed, we show surprisingly that photoluminescence is dominated by excitons despite the relatively small binding energy (~16 meV) of the low-energy band edge. Additionally, we extract the rates of exciton relaxation pathways, revealing a relatively large radiative term of 4.6 x 10 8 s -1 as well as an exciton-exciton annihilation term of 3.6 x 10 -13 cm 3 s -1 that is 3 orders of magnitude smaller than in similar quasi-2D perovskites.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

A mixture parameterized biologically based dosimetry model to predict body burdens of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in developmental zebrafish toxicity assays

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of environmental toxicants found ubiquitously as complex mixtures in human-impacted environments. Developmental zebrafish exposures have been used widely to study PAH toxicity, but most studies report nominal exposure concentrations. Nominal exposure concentrations can be unreliable dose metrics due to differences in toxicant bioavailability resulting from disparate exposure methodologies and chemical properties. Toxicokinetic modeling can predict toxicant tissue doses to facilitate comparison between exposures of different chemicals, methodologies, and biological models. We parameterize a biologically based dosimetry model for developmental zebrafish toxicity assays for 9 PAHs. The model was optimized with measurements from media, tissue, and plastic plate walls throughout a static developmental exposure to a mixture of 10 PAHs of high abundance within the Portland Harbor Superfund Site. Plate binding, volatilization, zebrafish permeability, and tissue—media partitioning coefficients vary widely between PAHs. Model predictions accounted for 83% and 54% of 48 hpf body burdens within a factor of 2 resulting from exposures to mixtures and individual PAHs, respectively. Accounting for solubility significantly improves model performance. Competition for active sites in metabolizing enzymes may change biotransformation kinetics between individual PAH and mixture exposures. Area under the curve estimations of concentrations in zebrafish resulted in altered hazard rankings from nominal exposure concentrations. Future work will be oriented to generalizing the model to other PAHs. This PAH dosimetry model improves the interpretability of developmental zebrafish toxicity assays by providing time-resolved body burdens from nominal exposure concentrations.

63 RADIATION, THERMAL, AND OTHER ENVIRON. POLLUTAN↗
DOE OSTI2026

Accessibility and Reactivity of Pentavalent Plutonium under Alkaline Conditions

Plutonium exhibits a particularly complex and rich aqueous chemistry due to a dynamic redox equilibrium that can result in the coexistence of four different oxidation states in aqueous solution. Within this equilibrium, pentavalent plutonium is among the most soluble and dominant oxidation states of Pu in neutral to alkaline aqueous solutions of relevance to environmental chemistries and the extreme chemical environments encountered in high-level radioactive wastes. Despite this, the fundamental chemistry of Pu­(V) under such conditions remains poorly understood. Here, in this study, we demonstrate the redox accessibility of Pu­(V) in alkaline media based on the observations of an electrochemically reversible Pu­(VI/V) couple at E 1/2 = 0.19 V vs Hg/HgO (0.29 V vs NHE), allowing us to electrolytically generate Pu­(V) in alkaline solution. These Pu­(V) solutions remained stable under ambient conditions for at least 9 days before precipitation of crystalline Na 2 [Pu V O 2 (OH) 3 ]·2H 2 O, the first structurally characterized Pu­(V) hydroxide. The modest potential of the Pu­(VI/V) redox couple allowed us to reproduce Na 2 [Pu V O 2 (OH) 3 ]·2H 2 O synthetically as well as isolate two additional novel Pu­(V)-bearing hydroxide phases Na­[Pu V O 2 (OH) 2 (H 2 O)]·2.5H 2 O and K 2 [Pu V O 2 (OH) 3 ]·2H 2 O as single crystals from alkaline reactions under mild hydrothermal conditions (<200 °C) using Na 2 O 2 and KO 2 as reductants. This reactivity is rationalized and informed by our electrochemical measurements. The properties of the Pu­(V) solids were further characterized by using vibrational and optical spectroscopy.

Kravchuk, Dmytro V. [Argonne National Laboratory (↗
DOE OSTI2024

Supramolecular assembly of polycation/mRNA nanoparticles and in vivo monocyte programming

Size-dependent phagocytosis is a well-characterized phenomenon in monocytes and macrophages. However, this size effect for preferential gene delivery to these important cell targets has not been fully exploited because commonly adopted stabilization methods for electrostatically complexed nucleic acid nanoparticles, such as PEGylation and charge repulsion, typically arrest the vehicle size below 200 nm. Here, we bridge the technical gap in scalable synthesis of larger submicron gene delivery vehicles by electrostatic self-assembly of charged nanoparticles, facilitated by a polymer structurally designed to modulate internanoparticle Coulombic and van der Waals forces. Specifically, our strategy permits controlled assembly of small poly(β-amino ester)/messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) nanoparticles into particles with a size that is kinetically tunable between 200 and 1,000 nm with high colloidal stability in physiological media. We found that assembled particles with an average size of 400 nm safely and most efficiently transfect monocytes following intravenous administration and mediate their differentiation into macrophages in the periphery. When a CpG adjuvant is co-loaded into the particles with an antigen mRNA, the monocytes differentiate into inflammatory dendritic cells and prime adaptive anticancer immunity in the tumor-draining lymph node. This platform technology offers a unique ligand-independent, particle-size-mediated strategy for preferential mRNA delivery and enables therapeutic paradigmsviamonocyte programming.

Science & Technology - Other Topics↗
DOE OSTI2025

Squeezing quantum states in three-dimensional twisted crystals

Bloch's theorem provides a conventional starting point for describing wave propagation in periodic media, but in ordered materials where competing spatial periods coexist it is rendered ineffective, often with dramatic consequences. Here we develop an alternate approach that uses coherent free-particle vortex states to study quantum states in supertwisted crystals: three-dimensional stacks of atomically thin two-dimensional layers. Here, this formalism leads naturally to the representation of the spectrum using squeezed coherent states, and it reveals the crucial role of a Coriolis coupling in the equations of motion. This identifies an underlying noncommutative geometry and novel edge state structure in a family of complex ordered structures.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Raman Spectroscopic In Situ Monitoring of Highly Turbid Media

The ability to run chemical processing more efficiently and cost effectively is a need that spans critical materials recovery and legacy nuclear waste cleanup. Sensors integrated to provide online monitoring are essential to addressing this need by providing near-real time feedback on process conditions, which can improve efficiency, aid in decision making, and reduce the need for grab sample measurements. Optical spectroscopy is well-suited for providing online chemical composition information and has been widely applied in varied chemical systems. However, applications in turbid matrices continue to represent substantial challenges to sensor performance, where absorption or scattering of excitation light can cause significant signal interference. Here, in this study, close-focus Raman probes are investigated for use in turbid media as a way to overcome the signal loss from the scattering of the Raman excitation source. This, paired with advanced data science techniques, allowed for the development of chemometric models for the accurate quantification of several analytes of interest (NO 3 – , NO 2 – , and PO 4 3– ) in highly turbid solutions with solids loadings of up to 20 wt %. This work focuses on offline sample measurement and characterization as an initial step toward the development of online monitoring capabilities. Chemical systems of interest were focused on nuclear waste at the Hanford Site, which represents highly complex matrices that could realize significant processing benefits through the integration of online monitoring.

Felmy, Heather M. [Pacific Northwest National Labo↗
DOE OSTI2025

Emergent Dimer-Model Topological Order and Quasiparticle Excitations in Liquid Crystals: Combinatorial Vortex Lattices

Liquid crystals have proven to provide a versatile experimental and theoretical platform for studying topological objects such as vortices, skyrmions, and hopfions. In parallel, in hard condensed matter physics, the concept of topological phases and topological order has been introduced in the context of spin liquids to investigate emergent phenomena like quantum Hall effects and high-temperature superconductivity. Here, we bridge these two seemingly disparate perspectives on topology in physics. Combining experiments and simulations, we show how topological defects in liquid crystals can be used as versatile building blocks to create complex, highly degenerate topological phases, which we refer to as “combinatorial vortex lattices” (CVLs). CVLs exhibit extensive residual entropy and support locally stable quasiparticle excitations in the form of charge-conserving topological monopoles, which can act as mobile information carriers and be linked via Dirac strings. CVLs can be rewritten and reconfigured on demand, endowed with various symmetries, and modified through laser-induced topological surgery—an essential capability for information storage and retrieval. We demonstrate experimentally the realization, stability, and precise optical manipulation of CVLs, thus opening new avenues for understanding and technologically exploiting higher-hierarchy topology in liquid crystals and other ordered media.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

Depolarization self-compensation in high-power lasers enabled by a mid-cavity quartz rotator

Depolarization from thermal stress remains a major limitation in high-average-power laser amplifiers, often addressed by complex, costly active methods or by using magneto-optical effects to restore the polarization. We demonstrate a passive polarization self-compensation technique using a quartz rotator in a relay-imaged, multi-pass amplifier geometry. A detailed theoretical framework is presented and validated experimentally, showing a 47 × reduction in depolarized light in a relay-imaged 4-pass cavity. This approach employs a high-damage-threshold, reciprocal material and avoids the use of polarizers or active controls, thereby simplifying system design and reducing costs. Scalability is discussed for realistic inertial fusion energy driver designs, including effectiveness for broadband lasers and thick gain media.

Batysta, František [Lawrence Livermore National La↗
DOE OSTI2026

Spatiotemporal and Statistical Mapping of Transition Metal Equilibria in Alkaline Media

Transition metal dissolution and redeposition (D/R) kinetics in alkaline media play a critical role in various chemical and electrochemical processes. Competitive reaction kinetics between different transition metals can modulate individual metal behavior in these processes. To date, these phenomena have remained largely unmeasured, and even when captured, they are difficult to statistically characterize due to their dynamic nature, simultaneous occurrence, and spatially heterogeneous nature. Here, in this study, we develop a statistical analysis framework based on in situ and operando X-ray fluorescence microscopy (XFM) to investigate the relative D/R kinetics of multiple transition metals in alkaline media. By employing statistical analysis, we quantify the spatial distribution of D/R species and assess the rate at which the system reaches equilibrium under varying reaction conditions. We show that pH does not simply change the rate of dissolution and redeposition, but reorganizes the cross-element kinetic correlations among Ni, Fe, and Mn and accelerates the spatial equilibration of D/R events, as quantified through correlation analysis, reaction-rate estimation, probability function distributions, and texture-based monitoring statistics. Additionally, we demonstrate how modifying the solvent environment can influence D/R kinetics, providing a pathway for tuning materials synthesis and process optimization. Our study offers valuable insights into the complex interplay between different transition metals and provides a reliable statistical framework for spatial analysis of diverse imaging data sets, enabling deeper extraction of latent information across multiple modalities.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2026

Reactions of U(DMSO) 8 (ClO 4 ) 4 with Terpyridine Yield Dimeric Hydrolysis Products and Induce C–C Coupling

Reactions have been carried out using UIV(DMSO) 8 (ClO 4 ) 4 with 2,2′:6′,2″-terpyridine (terpy) under nonaqueous conditions. At room temperature in acetonitrile, the combination of the U(IV) starting material with terpy resulted in a mixture containing [UO 2 (DMSO) 2 terpy][ClO 4 ] 2 ·MeCN, while increasing the water content led to the hydrolysis products [(UO 2 (DMSO)terpy) 2 (μ 2 –O)][ClO 4 ] 2 and [(UO 2 terpy) 2 (μ 2 –OH) 2 ][ClO 4 ] 2 ·MeCN·H 2 O. Performing the reaction at slightly elevated temperature with no added water led to the formation of [UO 2 sexipyridine][ClO 4 ] 2 ·MeCN. This new uranyl complex contains the hexadentate ligand 2,2′:6′,2″:6″,2″:6‴,2⁗:6⁗,2⁗′-sexipyridine, which formed in situ from the tetravalent uranium starting material, where photoexcited uranyl or in situ generated peroxide could have induced C–C coupling. Analysis of bonding in the dimeric uranyl species via quantum chemical methods revealed a small increase in covalency of the bridging oxo unit and a slightly greater stability compared to the bridging hydroxo compound, which causes a significant shift in the uranyl symmetric stretch in the Raman spectrum. Structural, spectroscopic, and computational comparisons are made across the series of compounds, providing insight into the bonding and reactivity of uranium in nonaqueous media.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

3D nanolithography with metalens arrays and spatially adaptive illumination

The growing demand for advanced materials, miniaturized devices and integrated microsystems calls for the reliable fabrication of complex, multiscale, three-dimensional (3D) architectures, a need increasingly addressed through light-based and laser-based processes. However, owing to the field-of-view (FOV) limitations of conventional imaging optics, existing 3D laser nanofabrication techniques face fundamental challenges in throughput, proximity error and stitching defects on the path to scaling. Here, in this study, we present a scalable 3D nanofabrication platform that uses a metalens-generated focal spot array to parallelize two-photon lithography (TPL) beyond centimetre-scale write field areas. Metalenses are ideally suited for producing submicron-scale focal spots for high-throughput nanolithography, as they uniquely feature large numerical apertures (NAs), immersion media compatibility and large-scale manufacturability. We experimentally demonstrate a printing system that uses a 12-cm 2 metalens array to produce more than 120,000 cooperative focal spots, corresponding to a throughput exceeding 10 8 voxels s −1 . By programmatically patterning the focal spot array using a spatial light modulator (SLM), an adaptive parallel printing strategy is developed for precise greyscale linewidth modulation and choreographed printing of semiperiodic and fully aperiodic 3D geometries. We demonstrate parallel printing of replicated microstructures (>50 M microparticles per day), centimetre-scale 3D architectures with feature sizes down to 113 nm, and photonic and mechanical metamaterials. This work demonstrates the potential of 3D nanolithography towards wafer-scale production, showing how TPL could be used at scale for applications in microelectronics, biomedicine, quantum technology and high-energy laser targets.

Materials science↗
DOE OSTI2025

A monolithic antineutrino detector for non-intrusive reactor monitoring

Recent advances in organic detection media have found applications in reactor antineutrino physics. One example is the Precision Oscillation and Spectrum Experiment (PROSPECT), which leveraged pulse-shape sensitivity to enable a successful surface deployment at the High Flux Isotope Reactor (HFIR), achieving a signal to background of 4:1. PROSPECT utilized almost 4 tonnes of 6 Li-doped pulse-shape sensitive liquid scintillator in a two-dimensional segmented array. It used a combination of pulse-shape sensitivity and position sensitivity via segmentation to reduce the most prominent form of correlated background for surface detectors — cosmogenic fast neutrons. These new liquids may enable detector designs that bring additional tools for reducing backgrounds while reducing engineering complexity. In this paper, we present an investigation into a detector design that exploits properties of these liquids by maximizing spectral and pulse-shape sensitivity via highly efficient photon detection. The detector utilizes photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) placed at the top and bottom of a right cylinder, with highly reflective white walls. This design sacrifices some position sensitivity for maximal photon efficiency. In conclusion, the design choice has consequences for the identification of the background and antineutrino sensitivity, which we examine.

Pulse shape↗
DOE OSTI2026

The Use of Microelectrodes in Molten Salt Electrochemistry

Molten salts have attracted considerable interest as essential media for advanced high-temperature technologies, including molten salt reactors, thermal energy storage, high-temperature electrolysis, and pyrochemical processing. Their ability to remain stable in liquid form at elevated temperatures, combined with favorable thermophysical properties and wide electrochemical windows, makes them highly suitable for applications involving heat transfer, energy storage, and hightemperature electrochemical processing. However, despite these advantages, molten salts present challenges due to their chemically reactive nature at high-temperatures, especially in the presence of oxidizing impurities. Salt chemistry can fluctuate through interactions with impurities over time, or fuel burnup in the case of molten salt reactors, often leading to the dissolution of metal species. This dynamic environment not only results in complex redox behavior but also promotes corrosion, which is rarely uniform and frequently manifests as localized degradation driven by structural materials’ compositional differences, electrochemical imbalances, and microstructural susceptibilities.

Kim, Changkyu [University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI↗
DOE OSTI2024

Simulation of Microcapsule Transport in Fractured Media Using Coupled CFD‐DEM

Geothermal energy is sustainable and gaining momentum as a solution to energy crises and environmental issues. However, challenges like production temperature and thermal breakthrough can impact geothermal project efficiency. One innovative solution to alleviate the thermal breakthrough is to inject polymer-based materials that are encapsulated in microcapsules into fractures to modify fracture permeability and prevent preferential flow. In our study, we utilized a coupled computational fluid dynamics and discrete element method to simulate the transport of microcapsules under various scenarios controlled by microcapsule size, microcapsule concentration, and fracture roughness. For a smooth fracture, the results indicate that small microcapsules can travel through a smooth fracture regardless of their concentrations. Large microcapsules can transport through a smooth fracture when present in lower concentrations. However, medium and mixed-size microcapsules tend to cause the sealing of a smooth fracture, irrespective of their concentrations. For a rough fracture, the transport of microcapsules is complicated by their interactions with the rough fracture walls. The presence of two sealing positions in a rough fracture adds further complexity to this transport phenomenon. The size and concentration of microcapsules control one sealing location, while the rough fracture walls determine the other sealing location. The rough walls substantially affect microcapsule transport, rendering the role of microcapsule size and concentration less significant. The simulation results suggest that complex fracture surfaces significantly elevate the occurrence of sealing behavior. To mitigate sealing behavior within more complex fractures, it would be beneficial to use smaller and lower concentrations of microcapsules.

15 GEOTHERMAL ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2025

Derivation of A Representative Elementary Volume (REV) for Upscaled Two-Phase Flow in Porous Media

Relative permeability plays an important role in the upscaling of multiphase flow in porous media from the pore scale to the Darcy scale. The entire concept of relative permeability is contingent on the existence of a representative elementary volume (REV). As we move to smaller samples to measure relative permeability, such as with digital core analysis, the concept of a classical REV has become increasingly unlikely when using the conventional approach to defining a representative volume. The “‘conventional”’ understanding of an REV is that a large enough volume must be considered such that spatial variability averages out. In digital rock methods, such as pore-scale simulations based on micro-computed tomography (CT) images, the domain size is typically 2 to 4 mm. This is approximately the length scale of a single-phase flow REV using the classic REV approach. However, the single-phase perspective does not consider the complex dynamics and fluctuations often observed in multiphase flow systems, even at centimeter-scale experiments and/or simulations. A fundamental question is, therefore, whether the domain size commonly used in digital rock simulations can provide a consistent energy budget such that the concept of relative permeability exists. Based on first principles, relative permeability accounts for the rate of energy dissipated in a stationary process. If the dynamics are fluctuating, the energy dissipated can vary but will average out over a long enough timescale. The key to determining the validity of the relative permeability is the timescale of the measurement, not the spatial scale. The conventional REV theory assumes that spatial, temporal, and ensemble averages are equivalent in an ergodic system, but it does not provide a way to test this assumption. We provide a formal way to identify the timescale where the relative permeability accurately captures energy dissipation as a way to validate relative permeability measurements and quantitatively assess their accuracy. This result will be tested for a practical SCAL test, determining how long a flow experiment needs to be run to accurately characterize the rate of energy dissipation by the flow. The outcome will be a best practice guide for the determination of relative permeability from core-scale experiments and/or digital core simulations that ensure the energy budget is fully accounted for in the relative permeability coefficient.

Mcclure, James [Virginia Tech, Blacksburg]↗