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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 109 records · Page 6
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2022

Ab initio molecular dynamics free energy study of enhanced copper (II) dimerization on mineral surfaces

Understanding the adsorption of isolated metal cations from water on to mineral surfaces is critical for toxic waste retention and cleanup in the environment. Heterogeneous nucleation of metal oxyhydroxides and other minerals on material surfaces is key to crystal growth and dissolution. The link connecting these two areas, namely cation dimerization and polymerization, is far less understood. In this work we apply ab initio molecular dynamics calculations to examine the coordination structure of hydroxide-bridged Cu(II) dimers, and the free energy changes associated with Cu(II) dimerization on silica surfaces. The dimer dissociation pathway involves sequential breaking of two Cu 2+ -OH – bonds, yielding three local minima in the free energy profiles associated with 0-2 OH – bridges between the metal cations, and requires the design of a (to our knowledge) novel reaction coordinate for the simulations. Cu(II) adsorbed on silica surfaces are found to exhibit stronger tendency towards dimerization than when residing in water. Cluster-plus-implicit-solvent methods yield incorrect trends if OH – hydration is not correctly depicted. The predicted free energy landscapes are consistent with fast equilibrium times (seconds) among adsorbed structures, and favor Cu 2+ dimer formation on silica surfaces over monomer adsorption.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Dynamic response of 17-4 stainless steel as a function of manufacturing method and heat treatment

We present a series of plate-impact experiments on 17-4 stainless steel to study the effect of manufacturing method and heat treatment on the Hugoniot elastic limit (HEL), Hugoniot, phase transformation stress, and spallation strength. Two traditional manufacturing methods were considered, wrought processing and casting, as well as two additive manufacturing methods, laser powder-bed fusion (LPBF) and wire-fed electron beam (EBAM). For both LPBF and EBAM 17-4 stainless steel variants, two billets were printed, enabling the application of two unique heat treatments. The HEL stress depended heavily on the thermal history, with the HEL increasing after the formation of Cu-rich precipitates via heat treatment. The Hugoniot response both below and above the phase transition was unaffected by the manufacturing method or heat treatment. The phase transition stress depended heavily on the thermal history, with its variation being attributed to the presence of various microstructural features. This is supported by a marked increase in the phase transition stress after precipitation hardening. These results suggest that the notion of the phase transition stress being dictated by bulk composition is an oversimplification and the stress fields generated by the meso-scale structure are a dominant force. The spallation strength was lower in the cast material compared to all other 17-4 stainless steel variants due to the presence of brittle δ-ferrite inclusions. Additionally, a drop in the tensile strain-rate was observed in the spallation response above the phase transition stress, which was hypothesized to stem from the kinetics of the reversion to the low-pressure phase during spall.

Compressive stress↗
DOE OSTI2020

Atomic-Scale Dynamic Interaction of H 2 O Molecules with Cu Surface

Atomic-scale interaction of water vapor with metal surfaces beyond surface adsorption under technologically relevant conditions remains mostly unexplored. Using aberration-corrected environmental transmission electron microscopy, we reveal the dynamic surface activation of Cu by H 2 O at elevated temperature and pressure. In this study, we find a structural transition from flat to corrugated surface for the Cu(011) under low water-vapor pressure. Increasing the water-vapor pressure leads to the surface reaction of Cu with dissociated H 2 O, resulting in the formation of a metastable “bilayer” Cu-O-H phase. Corroborated by density functional theory and ab initio molecular dynamics calculations, the cooperative O and OH interaction with Cu is responsible for the formation and subsurface propagation of this phase.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
NASA NTRSDate not supplied

Does Chirality Influence the Stability of Amino Acid –Cu Complexes in the Salt-Induced Peptide Formation Reaction? Insights from Density Functional Theory Calculations

The polymerization of amino acids into peptides and ultimately proteins is critical to evolution of life. Ribosomally-synthesized proteins are homochiral, composed entirely of L-amino acids. Abiotic syntheses of amino acids, however, produce racemic mixtures(equal amounts of L and D enantiomers), meaning that the pool of monomers available for abiotic protein synthesis would be racemic or nearly so. There are no prebiotically plausible mechanisms known to yield homochiral peptides from racemic pools of amino acids. While some mechanisms capable of producing or amplifying enantiomeric excesses have been observed, these excesses are small or not applicable to all biologically relevant amino acids. As a result, a prebiotically-feasible mechanism to create enantiopure pools of amino acids has not been identified. However, it is not clear that these enantio-enriched or enantiopure pools are necessary to produce homochiral peptides. Steric and electronic effects, or a combination of both, may influence how different enantiomers interact with each other, potentially leading to homochiral peptides from racemic mixtures. Here, we use density functional theory (DFT) calculations to assess the stability of homochiral and heterochiral reactive complexes produced during polymerization via the salt-induced peptide formation (SIPF) reaction. Experimental studies of the SIPF reaction have shown that it enables the formation of peptides under diverse environmental conditions, making it a plausible pathway to peptide formation on early Earth. In the SIPF reaction, NaCl acts as a condensation reagent while a divalent metal cation, primarily Cu2+, facilitates polymerization by complexing and activating amino acids forming a monochlorocuprate complex. To assess if hetero-or homochiral monochlorocuprate complexes were energetically favored, we compared the stability of LL, DD, and LD enantiomers of Cu2+–(alanine)2and Cu2+–(valine) 2 complexes. Gaussian 09 density DFT energy-minimization calculations were made for each Cu –amino acid complex in the cis and trans configuration. Models were energy minimized using the BH and HLYP/6-31++G(d,p) level of theory and free energies were compared to determine the most stable configuration.

A C Fox↗
DOE OSTI2022

Carrier Mobility Modulation in Cu 2 Se Composites Using Coherent Cu 4 TiSe 4 Inclusions Leads to Enhanced Thermoelectric Performance

Carrier transport engineering in bulk semiconductors using inclusion phases often results in the deterioration of carrier mobility (μ) owing to enhanced carrier scattering at phase boundaries. Here, we show by leveraging the temperature-induced structural transition between the α-Cu 2 Se and β-Cu 2 Se polymorphs that the incorporation of Cu 4 TiSe 4 inclusions within the Cu 2 Se matrix results in a gradual large drop in the carrier mobility at temperatures below 400 K (α-Cu 2 Se), whereas the carrier mobility remains unchanged at higher temperatures, where the β-Cu 2 Se polymorph dominates. The sharp discrepancy in the electronic transport within the α-Cu 2 Se and β-Cu 2 Se matrices is associated with the formation of incoherent α-Cu 2 Se/Cu 4 TiSe 4 interfaces, owing to the difference in their atomic structures and lattice parameters, which results in enhanced carrier scattering. In contrast, the similarity of the Se sublattices between β-Cu 2 Se and Cu 4 TiSe 4 gives rise to coherent phase boundaries and good band alignment, which promote carrier transport across the interfaces. Interestingly, the different cation arrangements in Cu 4 TiSe 4 and β-Cu 2 Se contribute to enhanced phonon scattering at the interfaces, which leads to a reduction in the lattice thermal conductivity. The large reduction in the total thermal conductivity while preserving the high power factor of β-Cu 2 Se in the (1–x)Cu 2 Se/(x)Cu 4 TiSe 4 composites results in an improved ZT of 1.2 at 850 K, with an average ZT of 0.84 (500–850 K) for the composite with x = 0.01. Furthermore, this work highlights the importance of structural similarity between the matrix and inclusions when designing thermoelectric materials with improved energy conversion efficiency.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2025

An impermeable copper surface monolayer with high-temperature oxidation resistance

Despite numerous efforts involving surface coating, doping, and alloying, maintaining surface stability of metal at high temperatures without compromising intrinsic properties has remained challenging. Here, we present a pragmatic method to address the accelerated oxidation of Cu, Ni, and Fe at temperatures exceeding 200 °C. Inspired by the concept that oxygen (O) itself can effectively obstruct the pathway of O infiltration, this study proposes the immobilization of O on the metal surface. Through extensive calculations considering various elements (C, Al, Si, Ge, Ga, In, and Sn) to anchor O on Cu surfaces, Si emerges as the optimal element. The theoretical findings are validated through systematic sputtering deposition experiments. The introduction of anchoring elements to reinforce Cu–O bonds enables the formation of an atomically thin barrier on the Cu surface, rendering it impermeable to O even at high temperatures (400 °C) while preserving its intrinsic conductivity. This oxidation resistance, facilitated by the impermeable atomic monolayer, opens promising opportunities for researchers and industries to overcome limitations associated with the use of oxidizable metal films.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Low-temperature liquid-phase formation of environmentally stable copper halide nanocrystal superlattices and their application to anticounterfeiting patterns

Nanocrystal superlattices have the potential to create a new class of semiconductor materials by combining the photophysical properties of individual nanocrystals with bulk-like structure performance. However, the principles underlying the direct formation of superlattices in liquid phase have not been thoroughly investigated, particularly, those consisting of exciton self-trapping metal halides. Here, in this work, we explore the formation of Cs 3 Cu 2 Br 5 nanocrystal superlattices via liquid-phase crystallization of growing nanocrystals over a reaction period of only a few seconds. Importantly, the reaction temperature and the precursor concentration were found to be key parameters governing the concomitant nanocrystal growth and superlattice formation. The resulting Cs 3 Cu 2 Br 5 superlattices had a well-defined face-centered cubic structure and emitted a single-band bright blue emission when exposed to 280 nm light. Owing to their advantages, such as low toxicity, reabsorption-free, narrow absorption, strong emission, and high environmental stability, the Cs 3 Cu 2 Br 5 superlattices were applicable to anti-counterfeiting applications. Our findings shed light on the liquid-phase assembly of nanocrystals into superlattices and highlight the potential applications of the superlattices.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2024

Observing Chemical and Morphological Changes in a Cu@TiO x Core@Shell Catalyst: Impact of Reversible Metal-Oxide Interactions on CO 2 Activation and Hydrogenation

A combination of several in-situ techniques (XRD, XAS, AP-XPS, E-TEM) was used to explore links between the structural and chemical properties of a Cu@TiO x catalyst under CO 2 hydrogenation conditions. The active phase of the catalyst involved an inverse oxide/metal configuration, but the initial core@shell motif was disrupted during the pre-treatment in H 2 . As a consequence of strong metal-support interactions, the titania shell cracked and Cu particles migrated from the core to on top of the oxide with the simultaneous formation of a Cu-Ti-O x phase. The generated Cu particles had a diameter of 20-40 nm and were decorated by small clusters of TiO x (< 5 nm in size). Results of in-situ XAS and XRD and images of E-TEM showed a very dynamic system, where the inverse oxide/metal configuration promoted the reactivity of the system towards CO 2 and H 2 . At room temperature, CO 2 oxidized the Cu nanoparticles (CO 2,gas → CO gas + O oxide ) inducing a redistribution of the TiO x clusters and big modifications in catalyst surface morphology. The generated oxide overlayer disappeared at elevated temperatures (> 180 °C) upon exposure to H 2 , producing a transient surface that was very active for the reverse water-gas shift reaction (CO 2 + H 2 → CO + H 2 O) but was not stable at 250 °C. When oxidation and reduction occurred at the same time, under a mixture of CO 2 and H 2 , the surface structure evolved toward a dynamic equilibrium that strongly depended on the temperature. Neither CO 2 nor H 2 can be considered as passive reactants. In the Cu@TiO x system, morphological changes were linked to variations in the composition of metal-oxide interfaces which were reversible with temperature or chemical environment and affected the catalytic activity of the system. Finally, the present study illustrates the dynamic nature of phenomena associated with the trapping and conversion of CO 2 .

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2023

Mechanistic Insights into Copper(I) and Copper(II) Cation Exchange Reactions in CdSe Nanoplatelets

In this study, we investigated the synthesis of copper selenide nanoplatelets (NPLs) through a cation exchange reaction (CER) in 5-monolayer-thick CdSe NPLs using Cu(I) and Cu(II) precursors. We discovered that the exposure of CdSe NPLs to a Cu(I) precursor led to the transformation of NPLs into Cu 2-x Se while maintaining their nanoplatelet morphology. The replacement of Cd(II) with Cu(I) prevailed over the formation of doped structures. In the case of the Cu(II) precursor, we observed that Cu(II) was first reduced to Cu(I) before being intercalated into the host lattice, resulting in the synthesis of Cu 2-x Se, similar to CER with Cu(I) precursors but without preservation of the initial morphology of NPLs. Interestingly, the presence of oxygen was found to facilitate the cation exchange processes in CdSe NPLs, whereas a nitrogen atmosphere suppressed the CER. Further, despite the similar ionic sizes of Cu(I) and Cu(II), the substitution of Cd(II) with Cu(II) was found to be challenging, possibly due to the involvement of redox processes resulting in the significant deterioration of initial CdSe NPLs. We demonstrate that CER can achieve near-complete substitution of cadmium atoms with monovalent copper at room temperature. Understanding the processes involved in CERs is crucial for engineering more complex structures, such as high-entropy nanoparticles involving cation exchange with different oxidation states and development of material synthesis using machine learning and artificial intelligence approaches.

2D nanoplatelets↗
DOE OSTI2024

Ternary Complexes of BiI 3 /CuI and SbI 3 /CuI with Tetrahydrothiophene

Reactions of BiI 3 /CuI mixtures with tetrahydrothiophene (THT) in toluene produce 2-D sheet networks BiCu 3 I 6 (THT) n (n = 2, 3, or 4), depending on reaction conditions. All three structures are based on BiI 6 octahedra, which share pairs of (μ 2 -I) 2 with Cu 3 (THT) n units. BiCu 3 I 6 (THT) 2 features Cu 2 (μ 2 -I) 2 rhombs with close Cu···Cu interactions and is accompanied by formation of the very complex HBi 3 Cu 12 I 22 (THT) 8 . Reactions of SbI 3 /CuI with THT in toluene produced a SbCu 3 I 6 (THT) 2 network shows Cu 3 (μ 2 -THT) 2 units, like its Bi congener, but Cu 6 (μ 2 -I) 6 barrels rather than rhombs. Isolated SbI 3 units are stacked above the Cu 6 I 6 barrels. A molecular compound, Sb 3 Cu 3 I 12 (THT) 6 consists of a face-sharing Sb 3 I 12 stack, in which the Cu-THT units are bonded in asymmetric fashion about the central SbI 6 . Metal-halide bonds were investigated via QTAIM and NLMO analyses, demonstrating that these bonds are largely ionic and occur between the Bi/Sb and I p orbitals. Hirshfeld analysis shows significant H···H and H···I interactions. Diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) reveals band edges for the Bi species of 1.71–1.82 eV, while those for the neutral Sb complexes are in the range of 1.94–2.06 eV. Mapping of the electronic structure via density of state calculations indicates population of antibonding Bi/Sb–I orbitals in the excited state.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2021

Silica-copper catalyst interfaces enable carbon-carbon coupling towards ethylene electrosynthesis

Membrane electrode assembly (MEA) electrolyzers offer a means to scale up CO 2 -to-ethylene electroconversion using renewable electricity and close the anthropogenic carbon cycle. To date, excessive CO 2 coverage at the catalyst surface with limited active sites in MEA systems interferes with the carbon-carbon coupling reaction, diminishing ethylene production. With the aid of density functional theory calculations and spectroscopic analysis, here we report an oxide modulation strategy in which we introduce silica on Cu to create active Cu-SiO x interface sites, decreasing the formation energies of OCOH* and OCCOH*—key intermediates along the pathway to ethylene formation. We then synthesize the Cu-SiO x catalysts using one-pot coprecipitation and integrate the catalyst in a MEA electrolyzer. By tuning the CO 2 concentration, the Cu-SiO x catalyst based MEA electrolyzer shows high ethylene Faradaic efficiencies of up to 65% at high ethylene current densities of up to 215 mA cm -2 ; and features sustained operation over 50 h.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2025

Dynamic Features of Cu-Ceria Interface under CO 2 Hydrogenation to Methanol

It is generally accepted that metal–support interaction is very important for the hydrogenation of CO 2 to methanol, but little has been revealed about the feature of interfacial active sites under real reaction conditions since there are only limited techniques that can be applied under high-pressure conditions. Here, in this work, by combining multiple in situ and operando techniques on a model Cu/ceria catalyst, we have tracked Cu and ceria sites for methanol formation. Under the reaction condition, it is found that upon reaching the reaction temperature, oxidized Cu species in the as-synthesized catalyst immediately change into metallic Cu species. Following this, it is the gradual formation of methanol, the changing rate of which coincides with the formation of a unique Ce 3+ species. The combined experimental results and density functional theory (DFT) calculations have determined that the formed Ce 3+ sites driven by the reaction conditions are bound to hydrides, adsorbed carbonate species, and interfacial active Cu sites. The Cu-ceria interaction in this complex moiety is weak and can be easily disturbed with reaction environment variations, leading to dynamic changes at the interface upon the hydrogenation of active carbonate intermediates, which are precursors for the formation of methanol. The formation of this unique Cu–Ce 3+ interface and its dynamicity lead to an increase of methanol selectivity from less than 20% to 60%. These results suggest that reactant-derived species (H – and carbonate in this work) can be essential components of the active center with the functions of manipulating the metal−oxide interaction and directing reaction pathways.

CO2 hydrogenation to methanol↗
DOE OSTI2020

Enhancement of high-temperature selectivity on Cu-SSZ-13 towards NH3-SCR reaction from highly dispersed ZrO2

ZrO2 is introduced as a secondary phase to Cu-SSZ-13 via different approaches and tested for the NH3-SCR reaction. It is shown that the vicinity between the two catalyst phases, i.e., ZrO2 dispersion, influences interaction between copper oxide (CuOx) on Cu-SSZ-13 and ZrO2. A strong interaction is achieved when ZrO2 is formed with high dispersion on Cu-SSZ-13, and leads to the chemical interaction of CuOx and ZrO2 in hydrothermally aged catalysts. The result is formation of a Cu-stabilized t-ZrO2 phase which greatly hinders the non-selective NH3 oxidation due to CuOx. With reduced ZrO2 dispersion and less Cu-SSZ-13 and ZrO2 interaction, the beneficial role of ZrO2 is diminished. This strategy of CuOx passivation is able to significantly enhance the high-temperature selectivity of the state-of-the-art NH3-SCR catalytic system while mitigating the adverse impact of CuOx clusters on the zeolite, potentially enabling higher Cu-content SCR catalysts and improved low-temperature activity.

NH3-SCR, ZrO2, selective catalytic reduction, afte↗
DOE OSTI2020

Synthesis and Electrocatalytic HER Studies of Carbene-Ligated Cu 3– x P Nanocrystals

N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) are an important class of ligands capable of making strong carbon-metal bonds. Recently, there has been a growing interest in the study of carbene-ligated nanocrystals, primarily coinage metal nano-crystals, which have found application as catalysts for numerous reactions. The general ability of NHC ligands to positively affect the catalytic properties of other types of nanocrystal catalysts remains unknown. Furthermore, we present the first carbene-stabilized Cu 3–x P nanocrystals. Inquiries into the mechanism of formation of NHC-ligated Cu 3-x P nanocrystals suggest that crystalline Cu 3–x P forms directly as a result of a high-temperature metathesis reaction be-tween a tris(trimethylsilyl)phosphine precursor and an NHC-CuBr precursor, the latter of which behaves as a source of both carbene ligand and Cu + . To study the effect of the NHC surface ligands on catalytic performance, we tested the electrocatalytic hydrogen evolving ability of the NHC-ligated Cu 3–x P nanocrystals and found they possess superior activity to analogous oleylamine-ligated Cu 3–x P nanocrystals. Density functional theory calculations suggest that the NHC ligands minimize unfavorable electrostatic interactions between the copper phosphide surface and H + during the first step of the hydrogen evolution reaction, which contributes to the superior performance of NHC-ligated Cu 3–x P catalysts as compared to oleylamine-ligated Cu 3–x P catalysts.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗
DOE OSTI2022

Cluster dynamics modeling of Mn-Ni-Si precipitates coupled with radiation-induced segregation in low-Cu reactor pressure vessel steels

Formation of precipitates enhanced or induced by irradiation causes hardening and embrittlement of nuclear structural materials. Post-irradiation microstructure characterization of reactor pressure vessel (RPV) steels has shown that precipitation can be strongly associated with radiation-induced segregation (RIS) of solutes on dislocations. However, RIS and precipitation have not been coupled in previous precipitation modeling of RPV steels. Here in this study, a new hybrid and spatially-dependent precipitation model is developed that couples cluster dynamics with RIS, providing an unique way to account for concurrent evolution of heterogeneous cluster densities as well as solute and point defect concentration profiles. The model is applied to study the segregation of Mn, Ni, and Si on dislocations and heterogeneous nucleation of Mn-Ni-Si rich precipitates (MNSPs) in a low-Cu RPV steel. The result shows that the onset of MNSP nucleation on dislocations occurs at the fluence of 2 x 10 23 n.m -2 . The number density and mean radius can reach ~ 10 24 m -3 and 1-2 nm at high fluence, respectively. These observations suggest that the role of RIS and heterogeneous nucleation can be significant for RPV steels under a high fluence of irradiation. Results of simulations adopting various dose rates and dislocation densities show an increased fraction of MNSPs on dislocations at the condition of low dose rate, high dislocation density, and high fluence.

36 MATERIALS SCIENCE↗
DOE OSTI2020

Real-time Atomic-scale Visualization of Reversible Copper Surface Activation during the CO Oxidation Reaction

Dynamic structural and chemical information of catalyst surface during a catalytic reaction is critical for deciphering the mechanisms governing the properties of catalysts. Transition-metal based catalysts have emerged as an important alternative to noble metal catalysts, but their catalytic mechanism remains largely elusive, complicated by dynamic structure and valence evolution. Herein, by using in situ aberration-corrected environmental transmission electron microscopy, we capture, for the first time at atomic level, the dynamic evolution of Cu surface during CO oxidation reaction. We discovered that, under reaction condition, the Cu surface is activated, typically involving 2-3 atomic layers with the formation of a reversible meta-stable phase that only exists during catalytic reactions. Further, we reveal the distinctive role of CO and O2 in the surface activation, featuring CO exposure to lead to surface roughening and consequently formation of low-coordinated Cu atoms, while O2 exposure to induce quasi-crystalline CuOx phase. Corrugated by DFT calculations, we rationalize crystalline CuOx reversibly transforms into the amorphous phase, acting as an active species to facilitate the interaction of gas reactants and catalyzing CO oxidation.

Luo, Langli↗
DOE OSTI2024

Enhanced Carbon‐Carbon Coupling at Interfaces with Abrupt Coordination Number Changes

Abstract Cu‐catalyzed electrochemical CO 2 reduction reaction (CO 2 RR) produces multi‐carbon (C 2+ ) chemicals with considerable selectivities and activities, yet required high overpotentials impede its practical application. Here, we design interfaces with abrupt coordination number (CN) changes that greatly reduce the applied potential for achieving high C 2+ Faradaic efficiency (FE). Encouraged by the mechanistic finding that the coupling between *CO and *CO(H) is the most probable C−C bond formation path, we use Cu 2 O‐ and Cu‐phthalocyanine‐derived Cu (OD−Cu and PD−Cu) to build the interface. Using operando X‐ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS), we find that the Cu CN of OD−Cu is ~11, favoring CO* adsorption, while the PD−Cu has a COH*‐favorable CN of ~4. Operando Raman spectroscopy revealed that the interfaces with abrupt CN changes promote *OCCOH formation. As a result, the designed catalyst achieves a C 2+ FE of 85±2 % at 220 mA cm −2 in a zero‐gap CO 2 electrolyzer. An improvement of C 2+ FE by 3 times is confirmed at the low potential regime where the current density is 60–140 mA cm −2 , compared to bare OD−Cu. We report a 45‐h stable CO 2 RR operation at 220 mA cm −2 , producing a C 2+ product FE of ~80 %.

Chemistry↗