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Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

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At least 109 records · Page 6
All sourcesNASA NTRSDOE OSTI
DOE OSTI2024

Experiences and Lessons from Field Demonstration of Grid-forming Inverter in An AC Microgrid

The validation of GFM control strategies through simulation and hardware demonstration is important before their large-scale deployments in the real grid. Considering the importance of testing and validation, several works have explored the GFM inverter’s capability to blackstart a microgrid, synchronize and share loads, and interact with various types of generation sources and loads present in the grid. Herein, this paper complements the existing works by presenting the results and analysis of a field demonstration in an actual AC microgrid. The capability of a three-level neutral point clamped (NPC) GFM inverter equipped with a recursive feedback type of non-linear device level control to operate with PV source on its DC input and off-the-shelf PVGFL inverters and EV chargers of different kinds on the AC side is explored. The analysis and conclusions drawn would inform the readers to make better decisions during the field demonstration process.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2021

Performance Testing and Assessment of Protection Scheme Using Real-Time Hardware-in-the-Loop and IEC 61850 Standard

The main challenge of the microgrid is to design a suitable protection scheme due to the complexity of the architecture of the microgrid. The importance of the proposed protection technique is threefold. First, it presents a co-simulation platform to integrate between a simulated model on power system computer aided design (PSCAD)/real time digital simulator computer aided design (RSCAD) software’s and physical devices schweitzer engineering laboratories (SEL) 421-7 relays to protect the microgrid that includes different resources connected based on inverter interface. Second, it presents a comprehensive hardware/software setup to test the protective relays in a closed loop system and shows how to configure the protective relay’s International Electrotechnical Commission 61850 communications. Third, IEEE 1588 standard is used to provide sub nanoseconds latency between the simulated model that emulated on real time digital simulator (RTDS) and the external devices. Also, the measurement signals are synchronized between RTDS and the external devices using giga-transceiver synchronization card (GTSYNC) interface card and SEL-2488 satellite-synchronized network clock. The results showed that the co-simulation infrastructure introduces a highly dependable design, analysis, and testing environment for cyber and physical data flow in the system. Besides that, the voltages at ac/dc sides and frequency at fault condition were maintained due to the energy storage device contributions at different modes of operation.

42 ENGINEERING↗
DOE OSTI2022

Hydroxyl Conducting Hydrogels Enable Low-Maintenance Commercially Sized Rechargeable Zn–MnO2 Batteries for Use in Solar Microgrids

Zinc (Zn)–manganese dioxide (MnO2) rechargeable batteries have attracted research interest because of high specific theoretical capacity as well as being environmentally friendly, intrinsically safe and low-cost. Liquid electrolytes, such as potassium hydroxide, are historically used in these batteries; however, many failure mechanisms of the Zn–MnO2 battery chemistry result from the use of liquid electrolytes, including the formation of electrochemically inert phases such as hetaerolite (ZnMn2O4) and the promotion of shape change of the Zn electrode. This manuscript reports on the fundamental and commercial results of gel electrolytes for use in rechargeable Zn–MnO2 batteries as an alternative to liquid electrolytes. The manuscript also reports on novel properties of the gelled electrolyte such as limiting the overdischarge of Zn anodes, which is a problem in liquid electrolyte, and finally its use in solar microgrid applications, which is a first in academic literature. Potentiostatic and galvanostatic tests with the optimized gel electrolyte showed higher capacity retention compared to the tests with the liquid electrolyte, suggesting that gel electrolyte helps reduce Mn3+ dissolution and zincate ion migration from the Zn anode, improving reversibility. Cycling tests for commercially sized prismatic cells showed the gel electrolyte had exceptional cycle life, showing 100% capacity retention for >700 cycles at 9.5 Ah and for >300 cycles at 19 Ah, while the 19 Ah prismatic cell with a liquid electrolyte showed discharge capacity degradation at 100th cycle. We also performed overdischarge protection tests, in which a commercialized prismatic cell with the gel electrolyte was discharged to 0 V and achieved stable discharge capacities, while the liquid electrolyte cell showed discharge capacity fade in the first few cycles. Finally, the gel electrolyte batteries were tested under IEC solar off-grid protocol. It was noted that the gelled Zn–MnO2 batteries outperformed the Pb–acid batteries. Additionally, a designed system nameplated at 2 kWh with a 12 V system with 72 prismatic cells was tested with the same protocol, and it has entered its third year of cycling. This suggests that Zn–MnO2 rechargeable batteries with the gel electrolyte will be an ideal candidate for solar microgrid systems and grid storage in general.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗
DOE OSTI2021

Comparison of Electromagnetic Transient and Phasor-based Simulation for the Stability of Grid-Forming-Inverter-based Microgrids

The increasing interest in studying feeder-level, inverter-based microgrids requires appropriate simulation methods that can effectively simulate the dynamics of distribution feeders that typically have thousands of nodes. To examine the accuracy of phasor-based simulation for the stability of feeder-level, inverter-based microgrids, a comparative study between electromagnetic transient (EMT) and phasor-based simulation was conducted. Case studies of a two-inverter small microgrid and a modified version of the IEEE 34-Node Test System that has seven grid-forming inverters show that phasor-based simulation agrees well with EMT simulation when the P-f droop gains of grid-forming inverter controllers are within normal ranges. However, under extremely high P-f droop gains, phasor-based simulation can result in over-optimistic stability results. This study provides insight into the applicability of phasor-based simulation for the stability of feeder-level, inverter-based microgrids.

Du, Wei↗
DOE OSTI2025

Demonstration Trials of AI/ML Edge+Cloud Suite (CRADA Final Report)

PACE AI and LBNL partnered under this CRADA to test and evaluate the PACE5 edge node prototype, an AI/ML edge and cloud-based suite, at FLEXLAB.The objective of the test was to evaluate the PACE5 edge node prototype's ability to perform demand shed and take to dynamic price signals, and to demonstrate advanced fault detection and microgrid monitoring capabilities.

97 MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTING↗
DOE OSTI2022

Inrush Current Mitigation for Grid-Forming Inverters in Islanded Microgrids

Virtual-inertia and droop control methods are commonly used for grid-forming inverters. While the virtual inertia is used to emulate the equation of motion/frequency, if the inverter output voltage is emulated as in synchronous generators, then the method is known as the virtual synchronous generator. An inductive pulse-load, e.g., a relatively large induction motor, connection to a microgrid fed only by grid-forming inverters may lead to blackout due to high inrush currents. This article presents virtual reactance techniques to mitigate the inrush current effects and enhance the inverter’s robustness for the safe connection of inductive and dynamic loads. This article also compares the virtual inertia and droop control methods under switching inductive-dynamic loads while the proposed techniques are implemented. Experimental tests are performed considering the linear and nonlinear virtual reactance techniques, and the findings are discussed. The mitigation significantly suppresses the inrush currents while the inverters can perform a normal operation. Furthermore, the frequency and power response of the virtual inertia control with different inertia settings to a sudden change in the load is analyzed. The virtual reactance technique is tested in a laboratory-scale hardware setup of a 208V microgrid fed by 5kVA and 10kVA inverters, and the results are presented in this article.

Gursoy, Mehmetcan↗
DOE OSTI2024

Deep Reinforcement Learning for Microgrid Cost Optimization Considering Load Flexibility

This paper proposes a novel Soft-Actor-Critic (SAC) based Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) method for optimizing the cost of microgrid operation by leveraging load flexibility. The proposed SAC-DRL method is designed to coordinate the control of distributed energy resources (DERs) and flexible load, addressing practical energy billing formation by power distribution utilities. Key contributions include an innovative reward function to mitigate sparse reward challenges and a mixed control strategy for discrete and continuous variables, ensuring radial network topology and minimizing power loss. We evaluate the proposed method on the model of a real microgrid located in Southern California, U.S.. The SAC-DRL model is tested to demonstrate its efficacy in reducing grid dependence, optimizing resource use, and minimizing costs. The results highlight the potential of DRL in modern energy systems, offering a sustainable and economically efficient solution for energy management in microgrids.

deep reinforcement learning↗
DOE OSTI2020

Calibrating Synchronous-Generator-Interfaced DG Models in Microgrids Using Multiple Event Data

Microgrids, consisting of distributed generators (DGs), loads, and energy storage systems, play an important role in future smart grids. In order to evaluate how microgrids operate and their dynamic response, it is necessary to develop accurate dynamic models of DGs in microgrids. This paper proposes a systematic method to calibrate synchronous-generator-interfaced DG models. Challenges associated with model validation in microgrids are analyzed. Underlying parameters are categorized into two groups, i.e., the steady-state parameters and time constants, which are estimated in two successive stages using multiple event data. This methodology ensures that the validated model with the estimated parameters are applicable for all events. A modified unscented Kalman filter (UKF) is proposed to deal with the cases in which measurement of power angle is unavailable. The effectiveness of the proposed method is validated using field test data of a 2.6 MVA diesel generator in a real microgrid.

Wang, Zhiwen↗
DOE OSTI2022

Dynamic Load Inrush Current Mitigation in Islanded Microgrids Powered by Grid-Forming Inverters

Grid-forming inverters in a microgrid may trip due to high inrush current caused by a switched connection of an inductive load, e.g., a relatively large induction motor. The control scheme presented in this article includes virtual inertia control method superimposed on the cascaded controller. This article studies the impact of cascaded control scheme used for grid-forming inverter to mitigate the inrush current effects and enhance the inverter’s robustness for the safe connection of inductive and dynamic loads. Experimental tests are performed using the virtual inertia method for generating the reference angle for synchronous frame conversion. The experimental performance and sensitivity of the controller to different controller gain settings for a switched connection of an induction motor are discussed. The cascaded operation significantly mitigates the inrush currents while the inverters can perform a normal operation. The performance of the control method is tested in a laboratory-scale hardware setup of a 208V microgrid fed by 5kVA and 10kVA inverters, and the results are presented.

Gursoy, Mehmetcan↗
DOE OSTI2022

Ensemble voting-based fault classification and location identification for a distribution system with microgrids using smart meter measurements

This study presents an ensemble learning approach for fault classification and location identification in a smart distribution network containing photovoltaics (PV)-based microgrid. Lack of available data points and the unbalanced nature of the distribution system make fault handling a challenging task for utilities. The proposed method uses event-driven voltage data from smart meters to classify and locate faults. The ensemble voting classifier is composed of three base learners; random forest, k-nearest neighbours, and artificial neural network. The fault location (FL) task has been formulated as a classification problem where the fault type is classified in the first step and based on the fault type, the faulty bus is identified. The method is tested on IEEE-123 bus system modified with added PV-based microgrid along with dynamic loading conditions and varying fault resistances from 0 to 20 Ω for both unbalanced and balanced fault types. A further sensitivity analysis has been done to test the robustness of the proposed method under various noise levels and data loss errors in the smart meter measurements. The ensemble method shows improved performance and robustness compared to some previously proposed FL methods. Finally, the proposed method has been experimentally validated on a real-time simulation-based testbed using a state-of-the-art digital real-time simulator, industry standard DNP3 communication protocol and a cpu-based control centre running the FL algorithm.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2024

Adaptive Protection and Validated Models to Enable Deployment of High Penetrations of Solar PV (PV-MOD)

The availability and validation of various PV models in commercial tools differ, with some models not yet thoroughly validated for advanced inverter functionalities and reliable performance under weak system conditions. Many existing models do not fully incorporate new inverter control functions, which can affect system stability. The increasing deployment of solar PV and other inverter-based resources (IBRs), including distributed energy resources (DERs), is influencing the reliable operation of protection schemes in distribution systems and microgrids. Emerging adaptive protection schemes (APS) offer new opportunities for protecting these systems during varying configurations and DER operating conditions, though their demonstration and validation remain limited. Adaptive protection schemes face similar challenges, as they are typically designed for specific configurations. There is a growing need for tools and methodologies to streamline the deployment of adaptive protection for safe and reliable DER integration. The project main objective was to develop and validate high-fidelity generic models of solar PV facilities for stability, protection, EMT, and QSTS analyses. This objective was achieved, and these models can now be integrated into commercial software tools, enabling utilities, vendors, and developers to study high-penetration PV systems more confidently. The project also demonstrated advanced applications of these models, including the design and deployment of adaptive protection schemes in high-penetration field applications and microgrids, supporting grid safety and reliability. Several milestones were reached by the end of the project. A sophisticated inverter test plan was developed, and inverters representative of the North American marketplace were selected. EPRI and NREL tested various inverters, conforming to IEEE standards. Improvements were made to existing generic models of IBR units, IBR plants, and aggregated feeders for various analyses. The first generic electromagnetic transient (EMT) model for a solar PV plant was developed, conforming to IEEE Std 2800™-2022 and validated against laboratory measurements of a 2.2 MVA large-scale battery energy storage system (BESS) inverter. That model was then used to produce reference responses illustrating examples of validated and verified IBR plant models that pass or fail tests for technical minimum capability and performance as specified in the IEEE standard. The developed, tested, and validated generic models can be used for transmission planning, stability assessments, expansion planning, and evaluating potential future IBR interconnection requirements. They can also support interconnection screens and conformity assessments of IBR plants, including solar PV. The project significantly contributed to the ongoing standardization and model-based representation and verification of IBR responses. The project further addressed challenges of common distribution protection schemes with increasing deployment of DER by developing, validating, and demonstrating adaptive protection schemes (APS) that can improve the reliable and safe integration of DER into distribution systems. New APS were designed using improved DER models for three common distribution systems: a radial feeder, a meshed network, and a microgrid. Modeling and hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testing of the APS were conducted, successfully showing their effectiveness and selectivity. Proof-of-concept field demonstration was achieved for two APS, i.e., one on a radial feeder and another one in a microgrid. Field demonstration could not be achieved for the APS on a meshed network, primarily due apprehension of one utility partner and also due to limited access to the protective algorithms in the network protectors. Guidelines developed from the lessons learned in the project lay out the general process followed in the design, installation, and commissioning of APS for various distribution systems. Distribution utility partners’ apprehension about field demonstration of the new APS were addressed—with varying success—by taking a stepped risk-management approach of modeling of a wide range of sensitivities first, performing in-depth proof-of-concept testing in the laboratory including HIL next, and finally deliberately implementing and commissioning the actual protection equipment and algorithms into parts of—or in parallel operation to—the three real distribution systems. Future work should include pilot projects that further show the acceptable performance of the developed APS before these schemes be rolled out more widely. Inclusion of both utility and original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) in future projects could increase chances of successful field demonstration. Despite challenges in achieving the field demonstration goal of the project for all three APS, the research significantly contributed to the innovation of adaptive protection solutions for scalable and reliable DER integration into distribution systems. This project significantly enhances the understanding of the impact of using appropriate inverter models on distribution and transmission (T&D) systems. By addressing the limitations of existing generic models, the project introduces high-fidelity models for stability, protection, electromagnetic transient (EMT), and quasi-static time series (QSTS) analyses. These models, integrated into commercial software tools, enable utilities, vendors, and developers to confidently study high-penetration PV systems. The project also demonstrates advanced applications, including adaptive protection schemes (APS) for distribution systems and microgrids, ensuring grid safety and reliability. The technical effectiveness and economic feasibility of the methods are evident through the development and validation of sophisticated inverter test plans and the selection of representative inverters. Testing by EPRI and NREL on retail, commercial, and utility-scale inverters, conforming to IEEE standards, underscores the robustness of the models. Improvements to existing generic models for various analyses further enhance their validity and applicability. The project also identifies gaps in common distribution protection schemes and designed new APS using improved DER models, demonstrating their effectiveness through modeling and hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testing. The project’s benefits to the public are manifold. By advancing the standardization and model-based representation of IBR response, it supports transmission planning, stability assessments, and future IBR interconnection requirements. The generic models can facilitate better communication between transmission planners and developers, supporting expected IBR plant capability and performance. Additionally, the development of APS for radial feeders, meshed networks, and microgrids supports the integration of distributed energy resources (DERs) into distribution systems, enhancing grid reliability and safety. The project’s emphasis on thorough testing and simplicity in design ensures practical and scalable solutions for DER integration.

14 SOLAR ENERGY↗
DOE OSTI2020

Mathematical Models for Optimization of Grid-Integrated Energy Storage Systems

Energy storage has been proven to yield positive effects on planning, operation and control of electric grids. It has become a crucial task to properly model the energy storage systems (ESS) under the framework of grid optimization on transmission and distribution networks including microgrids. This paper presents a review on mathematical models and test cases of ESSs used for grid optimization studies, where the network constraints of power systems are included. The existing ESS models are mainly classified into two categories – linear and nonlinear models. The two main categories are further divided into several subcategories respectively; such as mixed-integer linear and convex nonlinear sub-categories. Based on the review and discussions, this paper aims at providing suggestions for choosing proper ESS models for specific grid optimization studies considering the chosen power network model.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Demonstration of a Novel Technology to Manage Electricity Demand in Grid-Independent Military Microgrids

This research was conducted by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in collaboration with the S&C Electric Inc. through funding provided by the ESTCP. The project demonstrates use of cybersecure Automated Demand Response (ADR) technology to effectively manage microgrid loads during grid-independent, also known as "islanded," operation. When military microgrids become isolated from the main electrical grid, they are required to balance electricity supply and demand locally. Given that local generation may be constrained, the prevailing strategy involves shedding all but the most critical loads by tripping smart circuit breakers, which then necessitate manual resetting. This approach is generally implemented at the building level, which means that the buildings with mission-critical activities are exempt from load management and remain fully powered, whereas those deemed non-critical can experience a complete loss of service. In this research we developed a method that allows building automation systems to selectively control their assets in response to load shedding request from a microgrid controller, avoiding total loss of service in contrast to the conventional control approach. A commercial OpenADR client server by GridFabric is used for communication between the microgrid controller and the building management system (BMS). The microgrid controller monitors both generation capacity and various assets within the microgrid and issues a demand reduction request when necessary. This request is communicated to the OpenADR server via Modbus. Upon receiving the request, the OpenADR server forwards it to the BMS utilizing the OpenADR protocol. The BMS is pre-configured with various levels of load reduction strategies based on the controllable assets available, allowing for a nuanced approach to demand reduction. Both lab and field tests were performed that considered load shedding needed to achieve closed transition into island mode and to accommodate changing loads and power source availability while islanded. A commercial microgrid controller was used for these tests with normal programming within the expected constraints of the system capabilities. That is, the solution did not require any specialized modification to the code base of the controller. Given the latency of the round-trip communication path between the microgrid controller and the various devices involved with the load shed processes, there are certain scenarios for which the demonstrated solution are appropriate and some which are not. The methods described in this report can be used for load shedding/restoration during transitions between islanded and grid-tied modes of operation, as well as accommodating normal variations in load and the need to remove a power source from operation for maintenance. These methods should not be used for scenarios that require load shedding within a second or two such as sudden and unanticipated significant load increases or loss of power sources through equipment faults.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2021

Sustainable Campus with PEV and Microgrid

Market penetration of electric vehicles (EVs) is gaining momentum, as is the move towards increasingly distributed, clean and renewable electricity sources. EV charging shifts a significant portion of transportation energy use onto building electricity meters. Hence, integration strategies for energy-efficiency in buildings and transport sectors are of increasing importance. This paper focuses on a portion of that integration: the analysis of an optimal interaction of EVs with a building-serving transformer, and coupling it to a microgrid that includes PV, a fuel cell and a natural gas micro-turbine. The test-case is the Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore campus. The system under study is the Laboratory of Clean Energy Research (LaCER) Lab that houses the award winning Microgrid Energy Management System (MG-EMS) project. The paper analyses three different case scenarios to estimate the number of EVs that can be supported by the building transformer serving LaCER. An approximation of the actual load data collected for the building into different time intervals is performed for a transformer loss of life (LOL) calculation. The additional EV loads that can be supported by the transformer with and without the microgrid are analyzed. The numbers of possible EVs that can be charged at any given time under the three scenarios are also determined. The possibility of using EV fleet at NTU campus to achieve demand response capability and intermittent PV output leveling through vehicle to grid (V2G) technology and building energy management systems is also explored.

Singh, Reshma↗
DOE OSTI2025

Virtual Agents-Based Attack-Resilient Distributed Control for Islanded AC Microgrid

Due to its dependence on a communication network, distributed secondary control of microgrids is susceptible to denial-of-service (DoS) attacks in channel shutdown mode, which may negatively impact the network connectivity and thus deteriorate the coordination and power sharing among distributed generators (DGs). Honeypot is a common method for cyber deception by introducing fake targets. However, in the context of microgrid, the misleading information spread by honeypots will also impact the system performance. This paper proposes an attack-resilient distributed control for AC microgrids utilizing virtual agents (VAs) to counteract both DoS edge and node attacks. The VAs are designed to not impact the system’s steady state during normal operation but to share information among neighboring real agents and serve as dummy targets for DoS attacks. The control with VAs is implemented by a primal-dual gradient based distributed algorithm to efficiently obtain a practical solution for voltage/frequency regulation and power sharing. The simulation results on a 4-DG test system and a modified IEEE 34-bus system show that 1) VAs do not impact the normal functionality of the test system, and 2) deploying VAs can enhance the resilience of the microgrid control against DoS edge and node attacks.

24 POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION↗
DOE OSTI2025

Job Scheduler-Driven Power Gateway for High Performance Computing

Power gateways in the form of a microgrid can incorporate multiple distributed energy resources (DER) in either grid forming or grid following mode and support high performance computing (HPC) power profiles including the large load-follow requirements observed in multi-user HPC systems. The microgrid’s flexibility to operate in either grid forming or grid following mode and to actively switch between these modes enables baseline power from multiple non-baseline DER while maintaining high power quality metrics for the HPC system. But this enormous flexibility in demand response and time of use shifting is generally programmed independently of any integration with an HPC job scheduler which can better inform the load shaping by the microgrid. While there are many existing approaches where the HPC job scheduler takes in information from the grid to make queue scheduling decisions, this work takes the opposite view and explores a scheduler where the jobs in the queue can directly impact the settings of the grid. Several HPC scheduler strategies are tested where the jobs in the queue directly impact the settings of a microgrid designed for HPC operation which is driving a datacenter with three classes of HPC architectures. The scheduler operation is shown using a microgrid with 64 kW of solar capacity and 320 kWh of battery over a period of 21 days operating with significant low-follow swings, a throttled grid, cloudy conditions, switching between grid following and grid forming modes, and a wide range of battery states-of-charge all while maintaining high quality power metrics. The scheduler provides a mechanism for the job queue to directly impact a power gateway like a microgrid and to improve HPC power outcomes such as maximizing renewable energy usage

microgrid↗
DOE OSTI2024

Artificial Neural Network-based State Estimation for Low Observable, Unbalanced Microgrids for Microgrid Building Blocks

The microgrid building blocks (MBB) were proposed as microgrid components with combined sub-components with power conversion, communication, and microgrid control capability, or a subset of such sub-components. This work addresses the microgrid controller, present in an MBB, which requires accurate state estimation to perform its tasks, including for monitoring, power flow (dispatch), fault detection, etc. In this paper, an artificial neural network (ANN)-based framework for state estimation is proposed for an MBB, especially for unbalanced and low observable microgrids. To overcome the challenge of low observability in unbalanced systems, a concept of extended adjacent matrix is introduced to reduce the required number of measurements for state estimation. Addressing the challenges, a feed forward neural network (FNN) is utilized to enhance estimation accuracy and reliability with the reduced number of measurements. The proposed state estimation is validated through extensive simulations on a microgrid, which was achieved from the modified IEEE 34-bus distribution test feeder with multiple distributed energy resources (DERs) and demonstrated superior performance in estimation accuracy and low observability.

Choi, Jongchan↗
DOE OSTI2021

Scalable Distributed Reachability Analysis for Cyber-Physical Networked Microgrids with Communication Latency

Due to the high penetration of power-electronic-interfaced distributed energy resources (DERs), a microgrid's inertia is significantly reduced, making it sensitive to cyberand physical operational changes. When multiple microgrids are interconnected to form networked microgrids for improving system's resilience, the changes of one microgrid can quickly escalate to the overall system. In cyber-physical networked microgrids, the communication latency varies a lot. To efficiently quantify the impact of the communication latency on the dynamics of networked microgrids, a scalable distributed reachability analysis approach is presented in this paper. Reachable sets are calculated for each microgrid and then composited for the overall system dynamics evaluation. Extensive tests in the full paper will demonstrate the influence of communication latency on system dynamics and validate reachable sets can bound a system's all dynamic trajectories subject to latency changes. The test results also offer an insight into designing and managing the communication network for enhancing the system's resilience.

Li, Yan↗