Search NASA⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search NASA

Results for “Al loss”

Search indexed NASA NTRS and DOE OSTI research on propulsion, heat transfer, battery materials and energy systems. Follow report and document links to the original sources.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 127 records · Page 7

Cooling of solar flares plasmas. 1: Theoretical considerations

Theoretical models of the cooling of flare plasma are reexamined. By assuming that the cooling occurs in two separate phase where conduction and radiation, respectively, dominate, a simple analytic formula for the cooling time of a flare plasma is derived. Unlike earlier order-of-magnitude scalings, this result accounts for the effect of the evolution of the loop plasma parameters on the cooling time. When the conductive cooling leads to an 'evaporation' of chromospheric material, the cooling time scales L(exp 5/6)/p(exp 1/6), where the coronal phase (defined as the time maximum temperature). When the conductive cooling is static, the cooling time scales as L(exp 3/4)n(exp 1/4). In deriving these results, use was made of an important scaling law (T proportional to n(exp 2)) during the radiative cooling phase that was forst noted in one-dimensional hydrodynamic numerical simulations (Serio et al. 1991; Jakimiec et al. 1992). Our own simulations show that this result is restricted to approximately the radiative loss function of Rosner, Tucker, & Vaiana (1978). for different radiative loss functions, other scaling result, with T and n scaling almost linearly when the radiative loss falls off as T(exp -2). It is shown that these scaling laws are part of a class of analytic solutions developed by Antiocos (1980).

Cargill, Peter J.↗

Alloy and structural optimization of a directionally solidified lamellar eutectic alloy

Mechanical property characterization tests of a directionally solidified Ni-20 percent Cb-2.5 percent Al-6 percent Cr cellular eutectic turbine blade alloy demonstrated excellent long time creep stability and indicated intermediate temperature transverse tensile ductility and shear strength to be somewhat low for turbine blade applications. Alloy and structural optimization significantly improves these off-axis properties with no loss of longitudinal creep strength or stability. The optimized alloy-structure combination is a carbon modified Ni-20.1 percent Cb-2.5 percent Al-6.0 percent Cr-0.06 percent C composition processed under conditions producing plane front solidification and a fully-lamellar microstructure. With current processing technology, this alloy exhibits a creep-rupture advantage of 39 C over the best available nickel base superalloy, directionally solidified MAR M200+ Hf. While improved by about 20 percent, shear strength of the optimized alloy remains well below typical superalloy values.

Sheffler, K. D.↗

Atomic-Scale Structure and Non-Stoichiometry of Meteoritic Hibonite: A Transmission Electron Microscope Study

Hibonite (CaAl_12O_19) is a common refractory mineral in Ca-Al-rich inclusions (CAIs) in primitive meteorites. Transmission electron microscope (TEM) studies have identified enigmatic planar defects in different occurrences of hibonite in the Allende meteorite that give rise to strong streaking along c* in electron diffraction patterns. Atomic resolution high-angle annular dark-field (HAADF) imaging and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analyses were used to determine the nature and origin of these planar features. HAADF images of hibonite grains reveal lamellar intergrowths of common 1.6 nm spacing, and less commonly 2.0 and 2.5 nm spacings, interspersed in stoichiometric hibonite showing 1.1 nm (002) spacing. Stoichiometric hibonite consists of alternating Ca-containing (“R”) and spinel-structured (“S”) blocks stacked in a sequence RS. In contrast, the 1.6 nm layers result from a doubled S block such that the stacking sequence is RSS, while in the widest defect observed, the stacking sequence is RSSSS. These intergrowths are epitaxial and have coherent, low-strain boundaries with the host hibonite Meteoritic hibonite shows common Ti and Mg substitution for Al in its structure. Atomic-resolution EDX maps of hibonite grains in the Allende CAI confirm the preferred site occupancy of Mg on tetragonal M3 sites in S blocks and of Ti on trigonal bipyramidal M2 and octahedral M4 sites in R blocks. Mg is highly concentrated, but Ti is absent in the planar defects where wider S blocks show Al-rich compositions compared to stoichiometric MgAl_2O_4 spinel. Therefore, Mg likely played the major role in the formation and metastability of planar defects in hibonite. Electron energy loss spectroscopy data from the Ti L_2,3 edge show the presence of mixed Ti oxidation states with ~ 15–20% of Ti as Ti^(3+) in hibonite, suggesting a direct substitution of Ti^(3+) ↔ Al^(3+) in hibonite. The remaining ~ 80–85% of Ti is present as Ti^(4+) and corresponding EDX analyses are consistent with the well-known coupled substitution 2Al^(3+) ↔ Ti^(4+) + Mg^(2+) being the major mechanism for Ti and Mg substitution in hibonite. The formation of planar defects in hibonite occurred during high-temperature nebular condensation or melting/crystallization processes. The occurrence of non-stoichiometric hibonite in the Allende CAI deviates from the mineral formation sequence predicted from equilibrium condensation models. Overall, our atomic resolution TEM observations signify non-equilibrium, kinetic-controlled crystal growth during the high-temperature formation of refractory solids in the early solar nebula.

hibonite↗

P/N In(Al) GaAs multijunction laser power converters

Eight In(AI)GaAs PN junctions grown epitaxially on the semi-insulating wafer were monolithically integrated in series to boost the approximately 0.4V photovoltage per typical In(Al)GaAs junction to over 3 volts for the 1 sq cm laser power converted (LPC) chip. Advantages of multijunction LCP designs include the need for less circuitry for power reconditioning and the potential for lower I(sup 2)R power loss. As an example, these LPC's have a responsivity of approximately 1 amp/watt. With a single junction LPC, 100 watts/sq cm incident power would lead to about 100 A/sq cm short-circuit current at approximately 0.4V open-cicuit voltage. One disadvantage is the large current would lead to a large I(sup 2)R loss which would lower the fill factor so that 40 watts/sq cm output would not be obtained. Another is that few circuits are designed to work at 0.4 volts, so DC-DC power conversion circuitry would be necessary to raise the voltage to a reasonable level. The multijunction LPC being developed in this program is a step toward solving these problems. In the above example, an eight-junction LPC would have eight times the voltage, approximately 3V, so that DC-DC power conversion may not be needed in many instances. In addition, the multijunction LPC would have 1/8 the current of a single-junction LPC, for only 1/64 the I(sup 2)R loss if the series resistance is the same. Working monolithic multijunction laser power converters (LPC's) were made in two different compositions of the In(x)Al(y)Ga(1-x-y)As semiconductor alloy, In(0.53)Ga(0.47)As (0.74 eV) and In(0.5)Al(0.1)Ga(0.4)As (0.87 eV). The final 0.8 sq cm LPC's had output voltages of about 3 volts and output currents up to about one-half amp. Maximum 1.3 micron power conversion efficiencies were approximately 22 percent. One key advantage of multijunction LPC's is that they have higher output voltages, so that less DC-DC power conversion circuitry is needed in applications.

Wojtczuk, Steven↗

Precision requirements on cosmic dust trajectory measurements

It has been known for some time that the orbital parameters of certain major meteor streams rather closely match those of presently observed comets. There is therefore a clear parent-daughter orbital relationship between meteoroids in certain streams and the comets that they derived from. For meteoroids in the photographic meteor range, it has been estimated that from 1% to 10% of the meteoroid mass is concentrated into the major streams. However, for the smaller, more numerous meteoroids observed as radar meteors, streams are less intense but there are more of them. Sekanina (1973) has established for the radar meteors that, in addition to comets, some of the parent bodies appear to be asteroids. As noted by Grun et al. (1985), meteoroid lifetimes, due to collisional destruction or Poynting-Robertson (P-R) drag losses, range from 10(5) yr downward to less than 10(3) yr; these meteoroids therefore need to be continuously be replenished by source bodies to maintain the meteoritic complex in some sort of temporal equilibrium. It will be very important to obtain their precise trajectories when meteoroids are collected with a capture apparatus in Earth orbit, as is made apparent with the following logic: a chemical, isotopic, or other analysis of any particular meteoroid constitutes a similarly detailed analysis of a small part of the parent comet or asteroid that is orbitally associated with it. One can, consequently, do rather detailed cometary or asteroid science utilizing only an Earth-orbiting cosmic dust capturing facility.

Zook, H. A.↗

Characteristics of Non-Premixed Turbulent Flames in Microgravity

This project is concerned with the characteristics of turbulent hydrocarbon (primarily propane) gas-jet diffusion flames in microgravity. A microgravity environment provides the opportunity to study the structure of turbulent diffusion flames under momentum-dominated conditions (large Froude number) at moderate Reynolds number which is a combination not achievable in normal gravity. This paper summarizes progress made since the last workshop. Primarily, the features of flame radiation from microgravity turbulent jet diffusion flames in a reduced gravity environment are described. Tests were conducted for non-premixed, nitrogen diluted propane flames burning in quiescent air in the NASA Glenn 5.18 Second Zero Gravity Facility. Measured flame radiation from wedge-shaped, axial slices of the flame are compared for microgravity and normal gravity flames. Results from numerical computations of the flame using a k-e model for the turbulence are also presented to show the effects of flame radiation on the thermal field. Flame radiation is an important quantity that is impacted by buoyancy as has been shown in previous studies by the authors and also by Urban et al. It was found that jet diffusion flames burning under microgravity conditions have significantly higher radiative loss (about five to seven times higher) compared to their normal gravity counterparts because of larger flame size in microgravity and larger convective heat loss fraction from the flame in normal gravity. These studies, however, were confined to laminar flames. For the case of turbulent flames, the flame radiation is a function of time and both the time-averaged and time-dependent components are of interest. In this paper, attention is focused primarily on the time-averaged level of the radiation but the turbulent structure of the flame is also assessed from considerations of the radiation power spectra.

Hegde, U.↗

The Temperature of the Arctic and Antarctic Lower Stratosphere

The temperature of the polar lower stratosphere during spring is the key factor in changing the magnitude of ozone loss in the polar vortices. In this talk, we will review the results of Newman et al. [2000] that quantitatively demonstrate that the polar lower stratospheric temperature is primarily controlled by planetary-scale waves. In particular, the tropospheric eddy heat flux in middle to late winter (January--February) is highly correlated with the mean polar stratospheric temperature during March. Strong midwinter planetary wave forcing leads to a warmer spring Arctic lower stratosphere in early spring, while weak midwinter forcing leads to cooler spring Arctic temperatures. In addition, this planetary wave driving also has a strong impact on the strength of the polar vortex. These results from the Northern Hemisphere will be contrasted with the Southern Hemisphere.

Newman, Paul A.↗

Fast Airborne Aerosol Size and Chemistry Measurements with the High Resolution Aerosol Mass Spectrometer during the MILAGRO Campaign

The concentration, size, and composition of non-refractory submicron aerosol (NR-PM(sub l)) was measured over Mexico City and central Mexico with a High-Resolution Time-of-Flight Aerosol Mass Spectrometer (HR-ToF-AMS) onboard the NSF/NCAR C-130 aircraft as part of the MILAGRO field campaign. This was the first aircraft deployment of the HR-ToF-AMS. During the campaign the instrument performed very well, and provided 12 s data. The aerosol mass from the AMS correlates strongly with other aerosol measurements on board the aircraft. Organic aerosol (OA) species dominate the NR-PM(sub l) mass. OA correlates strongly with CO and HCN indicating that pollution (mostly secondary OA, SOA) and biomass burning (BB) are the main OA sources. The OA to CO ratio indicates a typical value for aged air of around 80 microg/cubic m (STP) ppm(exp -1). This is within the range observed in outflow from the Northeastern US, which could be due to a compensating effect between higher BB but lower biogenic VOC emissions during this study. The O/C atomic ratio for OA is calculated from the HR mass spectra and shows a clear increase with photochemical age, as SOA forms rapidly and quickly overwhelms primary urban OA, consistent with Volkamer et al. (2006) and Kleinman et al. (2008). The stability of the OA/CO while O/C increases with photochemical age implies a net loss of carbon from the OA. BB OA is marked by signals at m/z 60 and 73, and also by a signal enhancement at large m/z indicative of larger molecules or more resistance to fragmentation. The main inorganic components show different spatial patterns and size distributions. Sulfate is regional in nature with clear volcanic and petrochemical/power plant sources, while the urban area is not a major regional source for this species. Nitrate is enhanced significantly in the urban area and immediate outflow, and is strongly correlated with CO indicating a strong urban source. The importance of nitrate decreases with distance from the city likely due to evaporation. BB does not appear to be a strong source of nitrate despite its high emissions of nitrogen oxides, presumably due to low ammonia emissions. NR-chloride often correlates with HCN indicating a fire source, although other sources likely contribute as well. This is the first aircraft study of the regional evolution of aerosol chemistry from a tropical megacity.

DeCarlo, P. F.↗

Developing a New Generation of Integrated Micro-Spec Far Infrared Spectrometers for the EXperiment for Cryogenic Large-Aperture Intensity Mapping (EXCLAIM)

The current state of far-infrared astronomy drives the need to develop compact, sensitive spectrometers for future space and ground-based instruments. Here we present details of the µ-Spec spectrometers currently in development for the far-infrared balloon mission EXCLAIM. The spectrometers are designed to cover the 555 – 714 µm range with a resolution of R = λ/∆λ = 512 at the 638 µm band center. The spectrometer design incorporates a Rowland grating spectrometer implemented in a parallel plate waveguide on a low-loss single-crystal Si chip, employing Nb microstrip planar transmission lines and thin-film Al kinetic inductance detectors (KIDs). The EXCLAIM µ-Spec design is an advancement upon a successful R = 64 µ-Spec prototype, and can be considered a sub-mm superconducting photonic integrated circuit (PIC) that combines spectral dispersion and detection. The design operates in a single M=2 grating order, allowing one spectrometer to cover the full EXCLAIM band without requiring a multi-order focal plane. The EXCLAIM instrument will fly six spectrometers, which are fabricated on a single 150 mm diameter Si wafer. Fabrication involves a flip-wafer-bonding process with patterning of the superconducting layers on both sides of the Si dielectric. The spectrometers are designed to operate at 100 mK, and will include 355 Al KID detectors targeting a goal of NEP ∼8 × 10−19 W/√( Hz). We summarize the design, fabrication, and ongoing development of these µ-Spec spectrometers for EXCLAIM.

Carolyn G. Volpert↗

A Compendium of Scale Surface Microstructures: Ni(pt)al Coatings Oxidized at 1150 C for 2000 1-h Cycles

The surface structure of scales formed on Ni(Pt)Al coatings was characterized by SEM/EDS/BSE in plan view. Two nominally identical {100} samples of aluminide coated CMSX4 single crystal were oxidized at 1150 C for 2000 1-h cycles and were found to produce somewhat disparate behavior. One sample, with less propensity for coating grain boundary ridge deformation, presented primarily alpha-Al2O3 scale structures, with minimal weight loss and spallation. The original scale structure, still retained over most of the sample, consisted of the classic theta-alpha transformation-induced ridge network structure, with approx. 25 nm crystallographic steps and terraces indicative of surface rearrangement to low energy alumina planes. The scale grain boundary ridges were often decorated with a fine, uniform distribution of (Hf,Ti)O2 particles. Another sample, producing steady state weight losses, exhibited much interfacial spallation and a complex assortment of different structures. Broad areas of interfacial spalling, crystallographically-faceted (Ni,Co)(Al,Cr)2O4 spinel, with an alpha-Al2O3 base scale, were the dominant features. Other regions exhibited nodular spinel grains, with fine or (Ta,Ti)-rich (rutile) particles decorating or interspersed with the spinel. While these features were consistent with a coating that presented more deformation at extruded grain boundaries, the root cause of the different behavior between the duplicate samples could not be conclusively identified.

Smialek, James L.↗

P/N In(Al) GaAs Multijunction Laser Power Converters

Eight In(Al)GaAs P/N junctions grown epitaxially on a semi-insulating wafer were monolithically integrated in series to boost the approx. 0.4 V photovoltage per typical In(Al)GaAs junction to over 3 volts for the 1 sq cm laser power converter (LPC) chip. This is the first report of a multijunction LPC for the 1.3 to 1.5 microns wavelength range. This wavelength range is optimum for laser power transmission over low- loss single-mode silica optical fiber, and is also useful with high efficiency 1.315 microns iodine lasers in free-space power transmission. Advantages of multijunction LPC designs include the need for less circuitry for power reconditioning and the potential for lower I(exp 2)R power loss. As an example, these LPCs have a responsivity of approx.1 amp/watt. With a single junction LPC, 100 watts/sq cm incident power would lead to about 100 A/sq cM short-circuit current at approx. 0.4 V open-circuit voltage. One disadvantage is the large current would lead to a large 1(exp 2)R loss which would lower the fill factor so that 40 wattS/sq cm output would not be obtained. Another is that few circuits are designed to work at 0.4 volts, so DC-DC power conversion circuitry would be necessary to raise the voltage to a reasonable level. The multijunction LPC being developed in this program is a step toward solving these problems. In the above example, an eight-junction LPC would have eight times the voltage, approx. 3 V, so that DC-DC power conversion may not be needed in many instances. In addition, the multijunction LPC would have 1/8 the current of a single-junction LPC, for only 1/64 the 1(exp 2)R loss if the series resistance is the same. Working monolithic multijunction laser power converters (LPCs) were made in two different compositions of the ln(x)Al(y)Ga(l-x-y)As semiconductor alloy, In(0.53)Ga(0.47)As (0.74 eV) and In(0.5)Al(0.1)Ga(0.4)As (0.87 eV). The final 0.8 sq cm LPCs had output voltages of about 3 volts and output currents up to about one-half amp. Maximum 1.3 microns power conversion efficiencies were approx. 22%. One key advantage of multijunction LPCs is that they have higher output voltages, so that less DC-DC power conversion circuitry is needed in applications.

Wojtczuk, Steven↗

Noble Gases in Two Fragments of Different Lithologies from the Almahata Sitta Meteorite

The Almahata Sitta meteorite, whose preat-mospheric body was the asteroid 2008 TC3, fell on October 7, 2008 in the Nubian Desert in northern Sudan [e.g., 1, 2]. Numer-ous fragments have been recovered during several expeditions organized from December 2008 [2]. The meteorite was classified as an anomalous polymict ureilite with several different kinds of chondritic fragments [e.g., 3-5]. Noble gas studies performed on several fragments from the meteorite showed cosmic-ray expo-sure ages of about 20 My [e.g., 6-8], although slightly shorter ages were also reported in [9, 10]. Concentrations of trapped heavy noble gases are variable among the fragments of different lithologies [9, 10]. We report noble gas data on two samples from the #1 and #47 fragments [2], which were the same as those re-ported by Ott et al. [9]. Experimental Procedure: Weights of bulk samples #1 and #47 used in this work were 16.1 mg and 17.6 mg, respectively. Noble gases were extracted by stepwise heating at the tempera-tures of 800, 1200 and 1800˚C for #1 and 600, 800, 1000, 1200, 1400, 1600 and 1800˚C for #47. Concentrations and isotopic ra-tios of noble gases were measured with a modified-VG5400/MS-III at the Geochemical Research Center, University of Tokyo. Results and Discussion: Cosmogenic He and Ne are domi-nant in both #1 and #47, but trapped Ar, Kr and Xe concentra-tions are much higher in #47 than in #1, showing that noble gas compositions in #47 are similar to those of ureilites. 3He/21Ne and 22Ne/21Ne of cosmogenic He and Ne are 4.8 and 1.12 for #1 and 3.6 and 1.06 for #47, respectively, both of which plot on a Bern line [11]. This indicates negligible loss of cosmogenic 3He from #1 in our sample, unlike the low 3He/21Ne of 3.1 for #1 by Ott et al. [9]. Concentrations of cosmogenic 3He and 21Ne (10-8 cc/g) are 30 and 6.3 for #1 and 32 and 9.0 for #47, respectively, which are higher than those in [9] and give cosmic-ray exposure ages of ca. 20 My depending on assumed production rates. Rela-tive abundances of trapped 36Ar, 84Kr and 132Xe for #1 resemble those of Q-component, which is a dominant trapped noble gas component in chondrites. In contrast to #1, #47 plots below a trend for ureilites [12] as well as Q, which implies a partial loss of trapped 36Ar from the lithology of #47.

Nagao, K.↗

Fast-interface-state losses in charge-coupled devices.

A simple model is presented that makes it possible to predict signal losses in charge-coupled devices due to fast-interface-state trapping. Presented experimental losses in a twelve-bit two-phase charge-coupled device with overlapping Si and Al gates are shown to agree well with the prediction of the model.

Carnes, J. E.↗

Relativistic rise measurement for heavy cosmic rays in xenon

Potential advantages of the use of the relativistic rise of energy loss in gas-filled counters for cosmic ray energy measurement have been noted by Tueller et al. (1979) and Gregory and Parnell (1979). Gregory and Parnell have reported measurements on the relativistic rise for cosmic ray iron nuclei in parallel plate ionization chambers 8.4 cm thick filled with a xenon and methane mixture. The present investigation is concerned with the observed rise and ionization signal fluctuations for a sample of elements from carbon through iron in the cosmic rays. The results are compared with a calculation of the energy deposit within the ion chamber.

Gregory, J. C.↗

Design of a Vehicle-Based Intervention System to Prevent Ozone Loss

Reduced quantities of ozone in the atmosphere allow greater levels of ultraviolet (UV) radiation to reach the earth's surface. The 1992/1993 project goals for the Virginia Tech Senior Design Team were to 1) understand the processes which contribute to stratospheric ozone loss, 2) examine ways to prevent ozone loss, and 3) define the requirements for an implementation vehicle to carry out the prevention scheme. A scheme proposed by R.J. Cicerone, el al late in 1991 was selected because of its supporting research and economic feasibility. This scheme uses hydrocarbon injected into the Antarctic ozone hole to form stable compounds with free chlorine, thus reducing ozone depletion. A study of the hydrocarbon injection requirements determined that 130 aircraft traveling Mach 2.4 at a maximum altitude of 66,000 ft. would provide the most economic approach to preventing ozone loss. Each aircraft would require an 8,000 nm. range and be able to carry 35,000 lbs. of propane. The propane would be stored in a three-tank high pressure system. Modularity and multi-role functionality were selected to be key design features. Missions originate from airports located in South America and Australia.

Mason, William H.↗

Integrated Bio-ISRU and Life Support Systems at the Lunar Outpost: Concept and Preliminary Results

We continue the development of our concept of a biotechnological loop for in-situ resource extraction along with propellant and food production at a future lunar outpost, based on the cultivation of litholytic cyanobacteria (LCB) with lunar regolith (LR) in a geobioreactor energized by sunlight. Our preliminary studies have shown that phototropic cultivation of LCB with simulants of LR in a low-mineralized medium supplemented with CO2 leads to rock dissolution (bioweathering) with the resulting accumulation of Fe, Mg and Al in cyanobacterial cells and in the medium. LCB cultivated with LR simulants produces more O2 than the same organisms cultivated in a high-mineralized medium. The loss of rock mass after bioweathering with LCB suggests the release of O from regolith. Further studies of chemical pathways of released O are required. The bioweathering process is limited by the availability of CO2, N, and P. Since lunar regolith is mainly composed of O, Si, Ca, Al and Mg, we propose to use organic waste to supply a geobioreactor with C, N and P. The recycling of organic waste, including urine, through a geobioreactor will allow for efficient element extraction as well as oxygen and biomass production. The most critical conclusion is that a biological life support system tied to a geobioreactor might be more efficient for supporting an extraterrestrial outpost than a closed environmental system.

Brown, I. I.↗

Diversity Buffers Winegrowing Regions from Climate Change Losses

Agrobiodiversity—the variation within agricultural plants, animals, and practices—is often suggested as a way to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change on crops [S. A. Wood et al., Trends Ecol. Evol. 30, 531–539 (2015)]. Recently, increasing research and attention has focused on exploiting the intraspecific genetic variation within a crop [Hajjar et al., Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 123, 261–270 (2008)], despite few relevant tests of how this diversity modifies agricultural forecasts. Here, we quantify how intraspecific diversity, via cultivars, changes global projections of growing areas. We focus on a crop that spans diverse climates, has the necessary records, and is clearly impacted by climate change: winegrapes (predominantly Vitis vinifera subspecies vinifera). We draw on long-term French records to extrapolate globally for 11 cultivars (varieties) with high diversity in a key trait for climate change adaptation—phenology. We compared scenarios where growers shift to more climatically suitable cultivars as the climate warms or do not change cultivars. We find that cultivar diversity more than halved projected losses of current winegrowing areas under a 2 °C warming scenario, decreasing areas lost from 56 to 24%. These benefits are more muted at higher warming scenarios, reducing areas lost by a third at 4 °C (85% versus 58%). Our results support the potential of in situ shifting of cultivars to adapt agriculture to climate change—including in major winegrowing regions—as long as efforts to avoid higher warming scenarios are successful.

Morales-Castilla, Ignacio↗