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NASA NTRS2015

Development of a Test for Evaluation of the Hydrothermal Stability of Sorbents Used in Closed-Loop CO2 Removal Systems

The International Space Station Carbon Dioxide Removal Assembly uses zeolite 5A molecular sieve material packed into beds for the capture of cabin CO2. The beds are cyclically heated to drive off the CO2 and restore the removal capacity. Over time, the sorbent material has been found to break down resulting in dust that restricts flow through the beds. Humidity adsorbed in the 5A zeolite when it is heated is a suspected cause of this sorbent degradation. To evaluate the impact of adsorbed water during thermal cycling, the Hydrothermal Stability Test was developed. The test configuration provides comparative side-by-side flow restriction data for two sorbent materials at specifically controlled humidity levels. While the initial focus of the testing is on 5A zeolite materials currently used on the ISS, the system will also be used to evaluate future candidate materials. This paper describes the approach, the test system, current results, and future testing.

Knox, James C.↗

DOE OSTI2025

Valorizing Hydrothermal liquefaction aqueous phase via nanofiltration: Enhancing biocrude production from algal biomass

The hydrothermal liquefaction aqueous phase (HTL-AP), a nutrient- and carbon-rich waste byproduct of the HTL process, can be recirculated to enhance biocrude production efficiency. To avoid dilution of the HTL feedstock and reduced fuel quality associated with recirculating untreated HTL-AP, this study investigated nanofiltration to concentrate organic compounds and separate nutrients from HTL-AP of three algal biomass sources: an algal wastewater treatment system and two from harmful algal blooms in lakes. Up to 99% of the organics were recovered in the concentrated HTL-AP (retentate), and significant increases in both permeate flux and permeation of nitrogenous compounds were achieved by increasing HTL-AP temperature to 45 °C and pH to 11. Recirculating the concentrated HTL-AP increased biocrude yield by 70%-116% and reduced biocrude nitrogen content by up to 12%. The carbon and energy capture in the biocrude also increased by 66% and 68%, respectively.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2022

Atomic-scale mechanism of carbon nucleation from a deep crustal fluid by replica exchange reactive molecular dynamics simulation

Here we present a mechanistic model of carbon nucleation and growth from a fluid at elevated temperature (T) and pressure conditions, typical of those found in the shallow Earth’s lithosphere. Our model uses a replica exchange reactive molecular dynamics framework in which molecular configurations are swapped between adjacent T replica at regular intervals according to underlying statistical mechanics. This framework allows predicting complex molecular structures and thermodynamics while remaining computationally efficient. Here we simulate the reactivity of an unstable mixture of CO 2 and CH 4 at 1000 K and 1 GPa. We find that the path to thermodynamic equilibrium is initially entropy-driven, producing a diversity of short-lived species, including various alcohols with intermediate carbon oxidation states. Cyclic and polycyclic radicals that are sometimes resonance-stabilized form next and set the stage for carbon nucleation. The carbon exsolution process releases abundant water, is exothermic and starts with the nucleation of a large aggregate of hydrogenated graphene flakes from covalently bonded polycyclic units. The carbon backbone of this nucleus subsequently grows into a hydrogen-depleted fullerene-like structure, before evolving toward a partially bilayered graphene layer. Overall, our results show that the mechanism of graphitic C formation is certainly not bimolecular, and that it may involve a combination of key condensation and radical chain reactions. This will help understand the isotopic, and reactive characteristics of carbon-bearing fluids during their upward transit through the Earth’s mantle and crust. Moreover, the mechanistic insights outlined here present intriguing similarities with the process of soot and interstellar dust formation, which suggests that the widespread distribution of abiotic polyaromatic and graphitic material on Earth and beyond may reflect the prevalence of a fundamental chemical pathway.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2022

Process optimization of caustic scrubber and iodine-129 immobilization in sodalite-based waste forms

Caustic scrubbers are proposed to remove vaporized iodine from nuclear fuel reprocessing plants. Resulting caustic slurries of radioactive iodine ( 129 I) and other anions can be captured and immobilized into the cage structures of sodalite-type minerals. Here, mixed anion sodalites were hydrothermally synthesized from a simulated caustic scrubber solution containing hydroxide/water, carbonate, chlorine, bromine, iodine, nitrate, and nitrite ions with added kaolinite. Experiments were conducted with twenty-five different sets of process conditions. Resulting powders were characterized by quantitative X-ray diffraction (XRD) and multi-functional thermal analysis, including gravimetry, calorimetry, and mass spectrometry. Using statistical analysis, process variables were tailored to maximize conversion of kaolinite into cage silicates, immobilize caustic scrubber anions, and minimize amorphous content. Further, chemical analysis showed the incorporation of all the targeted ions into the solids. Detailed investigation of a batch characterized after washing (creating secondary waste) and one without washing but subsequent calcination is given. This work contributes to defining the constraints required for subsequent consolidation process steps of the waste form to avoid volatilization.

12 MANAGEMENT OF RADIOACTIVE AND NON-RADIOACTIVE W↗

NASA NTRS1996

Stable light isotope biogeochemistry of hydrothermal systems

The stable isotopic composition of the elements O, H, S and C in minerals and other chemical species can indicate the existence, extent, conditions and the processes (including biological activity) of hydrothermal systems. Hydrothermal alteration of the 18O/16O and D/H values of minerals can be used to detect fossil systems and delineate their areal extent. Water-rock interactions create isotopic signatures which indicate fluid composition, temperature, water-rock ratios, etc. The 18O/16O values of silica and carbonate deposits tend to increase with declining temperature and thus help to map thermal gradients. Measurements of D/H values can help to decipher the origin(s) of hydrothermal fluids. The 34S/32S and 13C/12C values of fluids and minerals reflect the origin of the S and C as well as oxygen fugacities and key redox processes. For example, a wide range of 34S/32S values which are consistent with equilibration below 100 degrees C between sulfide and sulfate can be attributed to sulfur metabolizing bacteria. Depending on its magnitude, the difference in the 13C/12C value of CO2 and carbonates versus organic carbon might be attributed either to equilibrium at hydrothermal temperatures or, if the difference exceeds 1% (10/1000), to organic biosynthesis. Along the thermal gradients of thermal spring outflows, the 13C/12C value of carbonates and 13C-depleted microbial organic carbon increases, principally due to the outgassing of relatively 13C-depleted CO2.

Review, Tutorial↗

DOE OSTI2022

Using genetic algorithms to systematically improve the synthesis conditions of Al-PMOF

The synthesis of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) is often complex and the desired structure is not always obtained. In this work, we report a methodology that uses a joint machine learning and experimental approach to optimize the synthesis conditions of Al-PMOF (Al 2 (OH) 2 TCPP) [H 2 TCPP = meso-tetra(4-carboxyphenyl)porphine], a promising material for carbon capture applications. Al-PMOF was previously synthesized using a hydrothermal reaction, which gave a low throughput yield due to its relatively long reaction time (16 hours). Here, we use a genetic algorithm to carry out a systematic search for the optimal synthesis conditions and a microwave-based high-throughput robotic platform for the syntheses. We show that, in just two generations, we could obtain excellent crystallinity and yield close to 80% in a much shorter reaction time (50 minutes). Moreover, by analyzing the failed and partially successful experiments, we could identify the most important experimental variables that determine the crystallinity and yield.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2022

Hierarchically structured MoO 2 /dopamine-derived carbon spheres as intercalation electrodes for lithium-ion batteries

A hydrogen peroxide initiated sol-gel process involving molybdenum transformation in the presence of dopamine (Dopa) hydrochloride excess produced the metastable precipitate composed of polydopamine (PDopa) spheres coated with Dopa preintercalated molybdenum oxide, (Dopa) x MoO y @PDopa. The hydrothermal treatment (HT) of the (Dopa) x MoO y @PDopa precursor resulted in the simultaneous carbonization of Dopa and molybdenum reduction generating MoO 2 nanoplatelets distributed and confined on the surface of the Dopa-derived carbon matrix (HT-MoO 2 /C). The consecutive annealing (An) of the HT-MoO 2 /C sample at 600 °C under Ar atmosphere led to the formation of MoO 2 with increased Mo oxidation state and improved structural stability (AnHT-MoO 2 /C). Annealing had also further facilitated interaction between the molybdenum-derived and Dopa-derived components resulting in the modification of the carbon matrix confirmed by Raman spectroscopy. Morphology of both materials is best described as Dopa-derived carbon spheres decorated with MoO 2 nanoplatelets. These integrated metal oxide and carbon structures were tested as electrodes for lithium-ion batteries in the potential window that corresponds to the intercalation mechanism of charge storage. The AnHT-MoO 2 /C electrode showed enhanced electrochemical activity, with an initial specific discharge capacity of 260 mAh/g and capacity retention of 67% after 50 cycles, compared to the HT-MoO 2 /C electrode which exhibited an initial specific discharge capacity of 235 mAh g –1 and capacity retention of 47% after 50 cycles. The rate capability experiments revealed that the capacity of 93 mAh/g and 120 mAh/g was delivered by the HT-MoO 2 /C and AnHT-MoO 2 /C electrodes, respectively, when the current density was increased to 100 mA/g. Here, the improved specific capacity, electrochemical stability, and rate capability achieved after annealing were attributed to higher crystallinity of MoO 2 , increased oxidation state of Mo, and formation of the tighter MoO 2 /carbon contact accompanied by the annealing assisted interaction between MoO 2 and Dopa-derived carbon.

25 ENERGY STORAGE↗

NASA NTRS1996

Lipid biomarkers for bacterial ecosystems: studies of cultured organisms, hydrothermal environments and ancient sediments

This paper forms part of our long-term goal of using molecular structure and carbon isotopic signals preserved as hydrocarbons in ancient sediments to improve understanding of the early evolution of Earth's surface environment. We are particularly concerned with biomarkers which are informative about aerobiosis. Here, we combine bacterial biochemistry with the organic geochemistry of contemporary and ancient hydrothermal ecosystems to construct models for the nature, behaviour and preservation potential of primitive microbial communities. We use a combined molecular and isotopic approach to characterize lipids produced by cultured bacteria and test a variety of culture conditions which affect their biosynthesis. This information is then compared with lipid mixtures isolated from contemporary hot springs and evaluated for the kinds of chemical change that would accompany burial and incorporation into the sedimentary record. In this study we have shown that growth temperature does not appear to alter isotopic fractionation within the lipid classes produced by a methanotropic bacterium. We also found that cultured cyanobacteria biosynthesize diagnostic methylalkanes and dimethylalkanes with the latter only made when growing under low pCO2. In an examination of a microbial mat sample from Octopus Spring, Yellowstone National Park (USA), we could readily identify chemical structures with 13C contents which were diagnostic for the phototrophic organisms such as cyanobacteria and Chloroflexus. We could not, however, find molecular evidence for operation of a methane cycle in the particular mat samples we studied.

NASA Discipline Exobiology↗

DOE OSTI2020

Synergistic Effects of Inexpensive Mixed Metal Oxides for Catalytic Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Food Wastes

Industrial wastes and natural mixed oxide materials were evaluated as inexpensive heterogeneous catalysts for catalytic hydrothermal liquefaction (CHTL) of food wastes. Red mud and red clay achieved biocrude carbon yields of 47.0 and 39.5% with higher heating values (HHVs) of 40.2 and 37.7 MJ kg –1 , respectively, which were much greater than those without the catalyst (biocrude carbon yield of 19.7% and HHV of 36.1 MJ kg –1 ). Biocrude characterization revealed that similar families of molecules were formed in the presence and absence of catalysts, implying that the main role of the catalyst is to promote rates of thermal reactions, leading to biocrude production without opening new pathways. The crystalline structures of inexpensive mixed oxides were stable under hydrothermal conditions, with modest calcium leaching (7.5%) and trace leaching of other metals. Using red clay or red mud resulted in >40% recovery of the energy in food waste as biocrude, greater than that obtained under noncatalytic conditions (18%) or from any individual constituent oxide (19–27%). The improved CHTL performance of the mixed metal oxides compared with single-metal oxides was attributed to the synergistic effects of base and acid sites present on catalyst surfaces; mixed oxides presented balanced densities of acids and bases, whereas the constituent oxides were either primarily acidic or primarily basic. Lastly, the percent of energy recovered as biocrude oil was strongly correlated with the base-to-acid site density ratio, providing an important performance predictor for CHTL conversion of food waste to bioenergy.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

DOE OSTI2024

Influence of Carbon-Nitride Dot-Emitting Species and Evolution on Fluorescence-Based Sensing and Differentiation

Carbon dots have attracted widespread interest for sensing applications based on their low cost, ease of synthesis, and robust optical properties. We investigate structure–function evolution on multiemitter fluorescence patterns for model carbon-nitride dots (CNDs) and their implications on trace-level sensing. Hydrothermally synthesized CNDs with different reaction times were used to determine how specific functionalities and their corresponding fluorescence signatures respond upon the addition of trace-level analytes. Archetype explosives molecules were chosen as a testbed due to similarities in substituent groups or inductive properties (i.e., electron withdrawing), and solution-based assays were performed using ratiometric fluorescence excitation–emission mapping (EEM). Analyte-specific quenching and enhancement responses were observed in EEM landscapes that varied with the CND reaction time. We then used self-organizing map models to examine EEM feature clustering with specific analytes. Finally, the results reveal that interactions between carbon-nitride frameworks and molecular-like species dictate response characteristics that may be harnessed to tailor sensor development for specific applications.

37 INORGANIC, ORGANIC, PHYSICAL, AND ANALYTICAL CH↗

NASA NTRS1996

Hydrothermal systems as environments for the emergence of life

Analysis of the chemical disequilibrium provided by the mixing of hydrothermal fluids and seawater in present-day systems indicates that organic synthesis from CO2 or carbonic acid is thermodynamically favoured in the conditions in which hyperthermophilic microorganisms are known to live. These organisms lower the Gibbs free energy of the chemical mixture by synthesizing many of the components of their cells. Primary productivity is enormous in hydrothermal systems because it depends only on catalysis of thermodynamically favourable, exergonic reactions. It follows that hydrothermal systems may be the most favourable environments for life on Earth. This fact makes hydrothermal systems logical candidates for the location of the emergence of life, a speculation that is supported by genetic evidence that modern hyperthermophilic organisms are closer to a common ancestor than any other forms of life. The presence of hydrothermal systems on the early Earth would correspond to the presence of liquid water. Evidence that hydrothermal systems existed early in the history of Mars raises the possibility that life may have emerged on Mars as well. Redox reactions between water and rock establish the potential for organic synthesis in and around hydrothermal systems. Therefore, the single most important parameter for modelling the geochemical emergence of life on the early Earth or Mars is the composition of the rock which hosts the hydrothermal system.

Non-NASA Center↗

DOE OSTI2022

Mineralogical, magnetic and geochemical data constrain the pathways and extent of weathering of mineralized sedimentary rocks

The oxidative weathering of sulfidic rock can profoundly impact watersheds through the resulting export of acidity and metals. Weathering leaves a record of mineral transformation, particularly involving minor redox-sensitive phases, that can inform the development of conceptual and quantitative models. In sulfidic sedimentary rocks, however, variations in depositional history, diagenesis and mineralization can change or overprint the distributions of these trace minerals, complicating the interpretation of weathering signatures. Here we show that a combination of bulk mineralogical and geochemical techniques, micrometer-resolution X-ray fluorescence microprobe analysis and rock magnetic measurements, applied to drill core samples and single weathered fractures, can provide data that enable the development of a geochemically consistent weathering model. This work focused on one watershed in the Upper Colorado River Basin sitting within the Mesaverde Formation, a sedimentary sandstone bedrock with disseminated sulfide minerals, including pyrite and sphalerite, that were introduced during diagenesis and subsequent magmatic-hydrothermal mineralization. Combined analytical methods revealed the pathways of iron (Fe), carbonate and silicate mineral weathering and showed how pH controls element retention or release from the actively weathering fractured sandstone. Drill core logging, whole rock X-ray diffraction, and geochemical measurements document the progression from unweathered rock at depth to weathered rock at the surface. X-ray microprobe analyses of a 1-cm size weathering profile along a fracture surface are consistent with the mobilization of Fe(II) and Fe(III) into acidic pore water from the dissolution of primary pyrite, Fe-sphalerite, chlorite, and minor siderite and pyrrhotite. These reactions are followed by the precipitation of secondary minerals such as of goethite and jarosite, a Fe-(oxyhydr)oxide and hydrous Fe(III) sulfate, respectively. Microscale analyses also helped explain the weathering reactions responsible for the mineralogical transformations observed in the top and most weathered section of the drill core. For example, dissolution of feldspar and chlorite neutralizes the acidity generated by Fe and sulfide mineral oxidation, oversaturating the solution in both Fe-oxides. The combination of X-ray spectromicroscopy and magnetic measurements show that the Fe(III) product is goethite, mainly present either as a coating on fracture surfaces in the actively weathering region of the core or more homogeneously contained within the unconsolidated regolith at the top of the core. Low-temperature magnetic data reveal the presence of ferromagnetic Fe-sulfide pyrrhotite that, although it occurs at trace concentrations, could provide a qualitative proxy for unweathered sulfide minerals because the loss of pyrrhotite is associated with the onset of oxidative weathering. Pyrrhotite loss and goethite formation are detectable through room-temperature magnetic coercivity changes, suggesting that rock magnetic measurements can determine weathering intensity in rock samples at many scales. In conclusion, this work contributes evidence that the weathering of sulfidic sedimentary rocks follows a geochemical pattern in which the abundance of sulfide minerals controls the generation of acidity and dissolved elements, and the pH-dependent mobility of these elements controls their export to the ground- and surface-water.

58 GEOSCIENCES↗

DOE OSTI2020

The Effects of Synthesis Conditions on the Carbon Capture Capacity of Polyethylenimine Impregnated Protonated Titanate Nanotubes

Capture and storage of carbon dioxide emitted from power plants, which burn fossil fuels, is one of the best ways to mitigate climate change. Polyethylenimine (PEI) impregnated protonated titanate nanotubes (PEI-PTNTs) are efficient amine-modified solid adsorbents for post combustion carbon capture. This study is to investigate the effects of synthesis conditions of titanate nanotubes on the carbon capture capacity of PEI-PTNTs. PTNTs are synthesized using hydrothermal treatment of TiO 2 anatase powder at different temperatures and in different days, followed by washing with dilute HCl solution and deionized water. PEI-PTNTs are prepared by loading PEI (M.W. = 10,000) onto PTNTs at a weight ratio of 1:1 using a wet impregnation process. PTNTs and PEI-PTNTs are characterized using transmission electron microscopy, porosity and surface area analysis, powder X-ray diffraction, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. CO 2 adsorption is conducted at 75 °C using simulated flue gas, and CO 2 desorption is performed at 110 °C by purging the adsorbent with dry nitrogen gas. CO 2 adsorption experiments demonstrate that the PEI-PTNTs synthesized at 130 °C within 3 or 5 days, have the highest CO 2 capture capacity. These optimized PEI-PTNTs have a significant potential to capture CO 2 from power plants.

Materials Science↗

DOE OSTI2024

Aqueous-phase product treatment and monetization options of wet waste hydrothermal liquefaction: Comprehensive techno-economic and life-cycle GHG emission assessment unveiling research opportunities

While wet waste hydrothermal liquefaction technology has a high biofuel yield, a significant amount of the carbon and nitrogen in the feedstock reports to the aqueous-phase product. Pretreatment of this stream before sending to a conventional wastewater plant is essential or at the very least, advisable. In this work, techno-economic and life-cycle assessments were conducted for the state-of-technology baseline and four aqueous-phase product treatment and monetization options based on experimental data. Further, these options can cut minimum fuel selling prices by up to 13 % and life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions by up to 39 % compared to the baseline. These findings highlight the substantial influence of aqueous produce treatment strategies on the entire wet waste hydrothermal liquefaction process, demonstrating the potential for optimizing economic viability and environmental impact through further research and development of milder treatment methods and diversified by-product valorization pathways.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

DOE OSTI2024

Profitability, Scalability and Optimized Siting for Waste-to-Energy Supply Chains: A Case Study on Hydrothermal Liquefaction

Waste-to-Energy (WtE) conversion technologies have the potential to simultaneously reduce waste volumes, treatment-related emissions, and carbon intensity while producing valuable energy services. However, questions remain regarding under which conditions emerging WtE technologies are feasible to deploy. In this project, we develop an optimized siting method for WtE technologies to assess cost-effective WtE processor locations, throughput scales, and profitability. We apply the model using Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) as an example WtE technology. We develop calibrated capital and operating expense cost curves based on literature data to study the techno-economic characteristics of WtE supply chains. Prior to solving the siting optimization, we analyze the model parameters to describe organic waste management system behavior under four different HTL deployment configurations: Co-Processing, where HTL plants send biocrude to existing conventional refineries via assumed pipelines; Co-Location, where biorefineries are co-located with HTL plants; and two alternative Standalone Biorefining cases, where distributed HTL plants transport biocrude intermediate via either assumed pipelines or trucking to centralized biorefineries. We also define and apply several feedstock gate fee calculations, representing different revenue distribution options, to investigate how bioproduct value could impact WtE supply chain economics in terms of waste producer and processor profit or cost reduction.

09 BIOMASS FUELS↗

NASA NTRS2015

Aqueous Alteration on Mars: Evidence from Landed Missions

Mineralogical and geochemical data returned by orbiters and landers over the past 15 years have substantially enhanced our understanding of the history of aqueous alteration on Mars. Here, we summarize aqueous processes that have been implied from data collected by landed missions. Mars is a basaltic planet. The geochemistry of most materials has not been “extensively” altered by open-system aqueous processes and have average Mars crustal compositions. There are few examples of open-system alteration, such as Gale crater’s Pahrump Hills mudstone. Types of aqueous alteration include (1) acid-sulfate and (2) hydrolytic (circum-neutral/alkaline pH) with varying water-to-rock ratios. Several hypotheses have been suggested for acid-sulfate alteration including (1) oxidative weathering of ultramafic igneous rocks containing sulfides; (2) sulfuric acid weathering of basaltic materials; (3) acid fog weathering of basaltic materials; and (4) near-neutral pH subsurface solutions rich in Fe (sup 2 plus) that rapidly oxidized to Fe (sup 3 plus) producing excess acidity. Meridiani Planum’s sulfate-rich sedimentary deposit containing jarosite is the most “famous” acid-sulfate environment visited on Mars, although ferric sulfate-rich soils are common in Gusev crater’s Columbia Hills and jarosite was recently discovered in the Pahrump Hills. An example of aqueous alteration under circum-neutral pH conditions is the formation of Fe-saponite with magnetite in situ via aqueous alteration of olivine in Gale crater’s Sheepbed mudstone. Circum-neutral pH, hydrothermal conditions were likely required for the formation of Mg-Fe carbonate in the Columbia Hills. Diagenetic features (e.g., spherules, fracture filled veins) indicate multiple episodes of aqueous alteration/diagenesis in most sedimentary deposits. However, low water-to-rock ratios are prominent at most sites visited by landed missions (e.g., limited water for reaction to form crystalline phases possibly resulting in large amounts of short-range ordered materials and little physical separation of primary and secondary materials). Most of the aqueous alteration appears to have occurred early in the planet’s history; however, minor aqueous alteration may be occurring at the surface today (e.g., thin films of water forming carbonates akin to those discovered by Phoenix).

Ming, Douglas W.↗

DOE OSTI2022

M2CT-22IN1202096 Design for Carbon Conversion Product Pathways with Nuclear Power Plant Integration

Coal is a globally abundant resource that historically has been used for power generation via combustion. As the power industry replaces coal with cleaner methods of generation, energy-rich coal could be used in other chemical and fuel applications. This study presents a coal utilization option in which coal combustion is replaced with a carbon-free nuclear power plant and the coal is upgraded to valuable products for a variety of markets. Coal is prepared for conversion first by the pyrolysis process, which will optimize solid, liquid, and gaseous products based on the market size and potential product value, maximizing the monetary value of coal. This process is designed using bituminous coal from the Appalachian region as a basis to provide a pathway to preserve or transition coal-related jobs and create new jobs associated with the clean energy transition. Process modeling in the AspenOne Suite will be used to determine each component’s sensitivities, costs, inputs, and outputs. Dispatch modeling in the FORCE toolset will optimize the entire system and calculate the NPV for the refinery lifetime. Advanced and light-water reactors are considerations to supply the heat, steam, and electricity to the process. This paper focuses on the technical and market analysis used to determine the optimal processes and product pathways for the carbon refinery. Product pathways are on activated carbon, formic acid synthesis, and methanol synthesis for further upgrading to marketable chemical and polymer products.

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗

DOE OSTI2022

M2CT-22IN1202096 Design for Carbon Conversion Product Pathways with Nuclear Power Plant Integration

01 COAL, LIGNITE, AND PEAT↗